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Israel Environment Bulletin Winter 1994-5754, Vol. 17, No. 1
WORLD COAST 1993
Country Description: Israel
by
Valerie Brachya
Head, Planning Division, Ministry of the Environment
and
Dov Rozen
Israel Institute for Oceanographic and Limnological Research
Presented within the framework of the
World Coast Conference, Norway, November 1993
INTRODUCTION
Israel has two coastlines of very different physical and cultural
characteristics: the Mediterranean Coast and the Red Sea Coast.
The Mediterranean Coast
The Mediterranean coastline of Israel extends along roughly 190 kms from
Rosh Hanikra on the Lebanese border to Zikim on the border with Gaza. The
coastline can be divided into four morphological sections according to
physical characteristics and sedimentological properties:
1) Rosh Hanikra to Acre - a sedimentologically isolated region with abraded rocky platforms and narrow beaches;
2) Haifa Bay - bounded by the Acre promontory on the
north and the Carmel mountain range on the south,
the region consists of wide sandy beaches;
3) The Carmel coastal plain - between Caesarea and Haifa,
the region consists of three low parallel ridges of
calcareous sandstone, parts onshore and parts offshore,
with relatively narrow sandy beaches;
4) South of Caesarea - sandy beaches are occasionally
interrupted by sections of calcareous sandstone cliffs
up to 40 m high.
The major ecological feature of the Mediterranean coast of Israel is that it
constitutes the ending northern sector of the Nile littoral cell, which
extends from the coastal zone of the Nile Delta to the end of Haifa Bay at
Acre. This cell is composed of quartz Nilotic sand which is transported
along the coasts of Egypt, Sinai and Israel up until Haifa Bay. The net
yearly sand transport within the surf zone decreases from about 1,000,000
cubic meters at the Nile Delta, to about 250,000 m3 at Ashkelon, and to nil
somewhere between Hadera and Haifa where the net transport is zero or up to
about 100,000 m3 directed southward. The amount of sand disappearing along
the coast is assumed to be lost partially to the offshore and partially by
winding from the beaches to the coastal dunes of Sinai, southern Israel and
Caesarea whenever the sand can escape to the backshore through lows in the
relatively high coastal bluff. Beyond the surf zone, the sediment transport
is estimated to be about an order of magnitude larger at the Nile Delta,
decreasing to about 500,000 m3 at Ashkelon and about 100,000 m3 off Haifa.
This transport is performed by the combined action of the general
circulation current (which in this coastal sector is directed
counterclockwise), and the stirring effect of waves by their orbital
velocities at the sea bottom. In the whole cell, the current is directed
alongshore with a clear offshore component near the bottom, leading to the
effect that most of the fine sand and finer material are transported
offshore to the shelf, and only a fraction of the sand is transported
alongshore to Haifa Bay. The generally accepted opinion that all the sand
sinks in Haifa Bay seems only partially true, as new evidence regarding the
net longshore wave energy balance and sand transport at Haifa Carmel Beach
in the surf zone indicates that a part of this sand finds its way to the
surf zone by a clockwise circulation current in the Bay, eventually feeding
Carmel Beach. North of Acre, the sediments are of only local origin, chiefly
of carbonate nature, and the coastal shores are mostly depleted of
sediments.
The rivers flowing from the interior hill ranges to the Mediterranean shore
are today mainly seasonal, flowing only in winter. They are of no major
economic importance, but are features of natural value and, where not
polluted, are significant breeding grounds for small-scale local fisheries.
Human activity along this Mediterranean coastline dates back to prehistory,
and has left numerous onshore and offshore archeological remains. Due to the
lack of natural bays (except for Haifa Bay), artificial construction was
always necessary in this open shoreline to provide shelter against the
stormy Mediterranean Sea. At least twelve coastal settlements with harbors
are well known from earliest historic times along this intensively used
maritime corridor. The modern deep water port of Haifa was constructed
during the British Mandate in the 1930s. Tel Aviv and Jaffa have small
harbors. The second deep water port along this coastline was constructed at
Ashdod in the 1960s.
Roughly 70% of Israel's population, which reached five million in 1992,
lives within 15 kms of the Mediterranean coastline. Intensive settlement
along the coastal strip over the last 50 years now dominates the land use
pattern of the area, particularly the two major populations centers of Tel
Aviv and Haifa. This narrow coastal strip is the focus of the country's
economic and commercial activity.
Haifa Bay offers protected water for the development of an international
port, and is the primary center of heavy industry including oil refining,
petrochemicals and a steel mill.
Tel Aviv, with an expanding metropolitan area, is the major commercial
center of Israel and the focus of the country's transportation networks. Tel
Aviv also leads in tourist development along the coastline, together with
tourist resorts at Nahariya, Netanya, Herzliya, Bat Yam and Ashkelon.
Ashdod, just south of Tel Aviv, now competes with Haifa Port for
international shipping. Ashdod Port handles container shipments, citrus
exports, phosphates from the Dead Sea and other bulk cargo. The second oil
refinery in Israel was constructed at Ashdod, and the town is the second
major center of heavy industry along the coast.
The coastal strip also contains the most fertile agricultural land of
Israel, especially for citrus production. There is severe conflict between
the expansion of urban settlements along the coastline and the preservation
and protection of fertile agricultural land. Mariculture is becoming
increasingly important.
The main transportation arteries run very close to the coastline for much of
its length, particularly from Tel Aviv northwards. The coastal highway and
the railway run on an almost parallel alignment along the calcareous
sandstone ridges in order to avoid encroachment on agriculturally-productive
land.
The Red Sea Coast
The 10-km Red Sea Coast (Gulf of Eilat) can be divided into three sections:
About two and a half kms along the northern shore: a gently sloping
sandy shore;
Some three kms along the western shore: narrow, coarse sand and
pebble beaches where the mountains descend steeply to the sea;
The southernmost five kms along the western shore: a narrow shore
with coral reefs.
Eilat (pop. 30,000) is situated on the northern shore, and is intensively
developed for tourist and recreational uses. Its wide, fine sandy beaches
slope gently underwater to 100-150 m offshore, from where the sea floor
abruptly drops to 600 m and to 1500 m. Tourist development includes an
artificial lagoon and a marina.
Most of the northern section of the western shore is occupied by port
facilities. Deep water adjacent to the shoreline in the protected waters of
the Gulf enables anchorage without the need for offshore breakwaters. The
port facilities include the handling of bulk cargo, oil and vehicles.
Expansion of the port hinterland is limited by topography.
The Gulf of Eilat is the world's northernmost tropical sea ecosystem. Its
oxygen-rich water has a constant temperature of 21o-24oC. The Gulf supports
a dense population of more than 100 species of corals, 800 species of fish,
and hundreds of species of crustaceans and molluscs in a fragile
environmental equilibrium. Eilat's coral reef was designated as a nature
reserve in 1965.
Sea currents in the Gulf run counter-clockwise along the eastern shores of
Saudi Arabia and Jordan, turning westward along the northern tip of the
Gulf, then southward along the Israeli and Egyptian shores. Prevailing winds
are north-northeasterly. The climate is a typical desert one: very low
precipitation and over 340 clear, sunny days a year. Winter storms affect
the Gulf on rare occasions.
The Political System
Israel is a parliamentary democracy which consists of three branches: the
legislative (the Knesset); the executive (the government); and the judiciary
(the court system). The system is based on the principle of separation of
powers, with built-in checks and balances. The government is subject to the
confidence of the Knesset, and the absolute independence of the judiciary is
guaranteed by law. The president is the head of state.
Local government provides services in the areas of education, culture,
health, social welfare, road maintenance, public parks, water, sanitation
and fire brigades. Municipal and local councils are elected from party lists
on the basis of proportional representation, while mayors and heads of local
councils are chosen by direct vote. Financing of local authorities is via
municipal taxes, via the government through non-earmarked grants; and
through participation in the maintenance of country-wide public services.
There are 25 local authorities along the Mediterranean coast. The Red Sea
coast falls within the Municipality of Eilat.
ANTICIPATED EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
It is not clear whether anticipated climate changes will increase or
decrease precipitation over Israel both in total amount and in seasonal
distribution. But if temperatures in the region rise, then a decrease in the
total quantity of water charging the groundwater aquifers is to be expected
despite the possible increase in precipitation. The rise in temperature
would increase evaporation and reduce soil moisture, advancing desiccation
all over the country. This would affect rain-fed agriculture, afforestation
and grazing. Moreover, if climatic zones will move northwards, Israel will
experience desertification making the southern part of the country even less
appealing for large-scale human settlement.
Scientists predict that natural flora may not move northward as quickly as
climatic zones, thereby endangering many species. Before new species have
time to take over, soil erosion may occur. The longitudinal shape of Israel
may make the migration of species more difficult, as will the urban zones
which cut across the country. Since Israel is characterized by a high
biological diversity including some of the wild ancestors of important
staples and a relatively large number of endemic species, the preservation
of this biological diversity will become a major challenge under conditions
of climate change.
The anticipated major effects of sea-level rise and climate change on the
coastal zones of Israel at the Red Sea (Gulf of Eilat) and in particular at
the Mediterranean Coast are the following:
Increased erosion of the coasts, especially in the central sector of
Israel between Tel Aviv and Haifa, leading to collapse of the coastal
beach cliff, removal of the beach sand and exposure of the underlying
clay and cemented sand (kurkar) strata.
Increased intrusion of sea water into the coastal aquifer, decreasing
the quantities of potable water. Due to the exaggerated use of water
from the coastal aquifer in the recent past, significant intrusion has
already occurred. Hence, any additional intrusion of sea water would
have a very adverse impact on the capability to use that aquifer for
long-term storage of potable water. In addition, a deterioration of soil
quality by salt in the low lands (1-3 m above present MSL) and in the
estuaries is likely to occur.
Interference with the flow of groundwater towards sea level. Groundwater
level in the aquifer is likely to rise, spring locations might move to
higher elevations, and their discharge may undergo a certain decline.
Increased damage by floods in low regions, like the Kishon estuary, due
to lower discharge capacities under higher sea levels and possibly
greater precipitation. In addition to the change in flood magnitude, of
which the direction is not yet known, a rise in sea level will interfere
with the drainage capacity of rivers. The hydraulic slope of the lower
reaches will be milder. This will cause a rise and a widening of the
flowing water surface. Should the depth of precipitation be lower and
the flood magnitudes higher, the effect of sea-level rise will add to
the danger of flooding. However, should the depth of precipitation be
higher and flood magnitude lower, the danger to the rise in the drainage
base will be lessened.
Increased evaporation and decrease of water seepage to the underlying
aquifers for long-term storage.
DEVELOPMENT POLICIES
Urbanization
The major issue in the densely populated Mediterranean coastal strip is the
continued spread of urbanization. As the focus of the country's economic
activity, the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, together with the Haifa
industrial, commercial and port center, continue to attract urban
development with a consequent loss of agricultural land and of open space
for recreational activities. In addition, there is a rising demand in these
areas for space for transportation facilities (mainly roads), and for urban
services (water and electricity supply, solid and liquid waste disposal).
Policies of restraining development on prime agricultural land on the one
hand, and of encouraging development in peripheral areas through financial
incentives to industry and settlement on the other hand, have succeeded in
establishing urban and rural centers in inland areas, but have not
significantly decreased the rate of urban growth of the coastal strip.
Energy
Electricity is largely provided by the coalor oil-fired power stations
located on the Mediterranean Coast. Additional coal-fired units are
currently being added to existing stations at Hadera and Ashkelon. All
depend on a coastal location in order to utilize the sea water for cooling,
and for the supply of fuel. Sulphur dioxide emissions are monitored around
all stations; when atmospheric conditions indicate dispersion difficulties,
the oil-fired stations are required to switch to low-sulphur fuel (1%). Over
50% of electricity is generated by coal-fired units, using coal with a
sulphur content not exceeding 1%. Sulphur levels in fuels have been reduced
over the years: currently to 2.5% in oil; and from 1.1.94 will be 2%. This
has enabled a reduction in SO2 emissions despite the rapid increase in
electricity demand and production. Nevertheless, electricity production
accounts for some 70% of SO2 emissions in the country. The Israel Electric
Corporation has agreed to incorporate desulphurization plants in several
production units.
A major coastal issue of coal-fired power production plants is the disposal
of fly ash. Some has been disposed of on land, some is used by the cement
industry, but most is disposed of at seasome 80 kms offshoreaccording to
permits issued under dumping regulations.
Recently, the Electric Corporation has increased production from gas
turbines. These are located at inland sites and at Eilat. Gas turbines are
preferable from the point of view of air quality policy, and also offer an
alternative to a coastal location. Further production from gas turbines is
anticipated.
A very small amount of electricity is currently produced by alternative
forms of energy: solar, wind, water. Hopefully the future will bring a
technological and economic breakthrough for solar energy.
Port Development
The two major ports, Haifa and Ashdod, handle international container and
general cargo; passenger traffic is relatively small. Both ports have
adjacent oil refineries. Ashdod deals with the export of phosphates from the
Dead Sea Works. Both ports anticipate expansion in the future, and plan
extensions of breakwaters and land reclamation for further quays.
Eilat has a deepwater port and an oil terminal. Neither are currently very
active, although the level of activity may accelerate with changes of
markets in the future. There is severe conflict and competition for space
between port facilities and tourist development along the very limited
coastline. The risk of pollution from port activities to the highly
sensitive adjacent coral reef has limited some possible port functions, such
as the import of coal through Eilat Port.
Transportation
The rapid increase in car ownership (now some six persons per car) has a
major impact on the coastal environment, particularly in the rise of carbon
monoxide emissions and noise generation in the urban areas. Catalytic
converters, presently being required on all new vehicles; reductions in
sulphur and lead levels in gasoline; and the introduction of non-leaded
gasoline should reduce the rise in pollution levels.
Low-level ozone generated by traffic creates a pollution problem
particularly when trapped in inversion conditions.
Public bus transportation is relatively high in relation to private car
traffic. Plans for light rail public transportation are under consideration,
but are unlikely to reduce the continued expected increase in private
vehicle traffic.
Tourism
The major economic activity of the area immediately adjacent to the
coastline is tourism, both on the Mediterranean and on the Red Sea Coasts.
Both coastlines offer highly attractive conditions for local and
international tourism with sandy beaches, natural and historic features and
a well-developed infrastructure offering visitor accommodation and services.
Policies for coastal development have given preference to tourism,
especially in close proximity to the coastline. Current development plans
for the coast (see below) emphasize the importance of integrating future
tourist development with environmental protection.
Future policies for tourism could be affected by climate change, where beach
capacity may be reduced, and where marine structures, existing or proposed,
for recreational purposes, such as marinas and beach protection may require
raising.
Policies in Response to Climate Change
Policies have not yet been formulated in consideration of the impacts of
climate change. Policies will be needed with respect to water management,
coastal and cliff erosion, and drainage. Land use plans (see below) already
include a 100 m setback.
An anticipated impact would be the expected damage to coastal structures due
to increased wave forces, overtopping and scouring, marine traffic,
reduction in the efficiency of power stations due to smaller gradients at
the outlets, and necessity to raise existing and future offshore structures
to protect them against overtopping and increased maximum wave heights.
Assessment of Costs of Damage From Climate Change
WITHOUT RESPONSE WITH RESPONSE
STRATEGIES STRATEGIES
ITEM (Millions of $) Millions of $)
Rise of port structures
(berths, wharves) 40 20
Protection of low coastal
areas and beach cliffs by
breakwaters and other means
($5,000/m beach x 50 km) 1250 250
Outlets of power stations 40 20
Strengthening and repair of
existing breakwaters 100 50
Artificial feeding of beaches
as per $200/m beach x 100 km 20
Salt intrusion to coastal
aquifer and loss of water 20 20
Future offshore islands by
increased design heights and
volumes of fill 130 40
TOTAL 1600 400
INTEGRATION OF SECTORIAL PLANS
The integration of sectorial planning and development policies is carried
out within the context of the Planning and Building Law, 1965.
The land use planning system in Israel consists of a hierarchy of three
levels of planning: national, regional and local. Under the Planning and
Building Law, the top level of the hierarchy is the National Board for
Planning and Building which is composed of representatives of government
ministries, of local government, and of public and professional
organizations. The Board concentrates on the preparation of national outline
schemes and on the review of regional outline schemes.
The regional level of the hierarchy is the responsibility of six District
Planning and Building Commissions. At the local level of the hierarchy are
the 65 Local Planning and Building Commissions which are composed of
individual or groups of local authorities. There is a special national
commission for approving plans and permits for development in territorial
waters.
In 1970, the National Board for Planning and Building recognized that
Israel's coastlines should be treated as resources of national value, and
issued an order for the preparation of national plans for all its sea and
lake shores: the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea (Gulf of Eilat), the Sea of
Galilee and the Dead Sea.
The first stage of the National Outline Scheme for the Mediterranean Coast
was prepared by the Ministry of the Interior and approved in 1983. The main
objectives of the plan were to prevent development which had no need for a
coastal location, to protect large sections of the coastline as nature
reserves, national parks and coastal reserves, and to allocate coastal areas
for tourism and recreation activities. The masterplan included a highly
effective clause prohibiting development within 100 meters of the coastline.
Relaxation of this regulation is occasionally permitted only if approved by
the National Board.
To help provide a comprehensive long-term guide to planning policy beyond
the guidelines in the approved masterplan, the Board commissioned a more
detailed document for the resource management of the Mediterranean coastline
for tourist and recreation activities. This resource management plan, which
includes the land and marine sides of the coastline, was prepared by the
Ministry of the Environment and was recently submitted for approval.
The plan is based on principles of suitability and sensitivity of coastal
resources. The dominant principle adopted for resource management of the
coast was the definition of intensity of development. A natural, undeveloped
bathing beach offers a totally different experience from an urban beach with
multiple visitor facilities. Similarly, overnight accommodation at a village
camping site is a different experience from accommodation at a central urban
hotel. Five levels of development were therefore defined for beaches and
their immediate hinterland, four levels of intensity of accommodation, and
three levels of development of hinterland day-visitor areas.
Each site designated for tourist and recreation use was allocated a level of
intensity of development, initially proposed by the planners on the basis of
surveys, geological and ecological guidelines, and local site conditions.
Alternative proposals were checked to determine whether the level of
development proposed would damage sensitive resources on or near the site.
Where a conflict was identified, the level of intensity was reduced, the
boundaries of the development area changed, or the site cancelled and an
alternative selected.
The overall national policies proposed for resource management of the coast
include:
Development which is not for recreation or tourism should not be
permitted along the coast and its immediate hinterland;
Policies for resource protection should range from absolute
protection within a designated reserve to the identification of
sensitive resources to be considered within the detailed plan for
site development;
Highly intensive uses should be confined to existing urban centers;
Offshore construction for recreation and water sport activities
should be restricted to urban centers;
A public footpath should be designated along the coastline to
ensure public access by foot to and along the coastline.
COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Environmental Impact Assessment
EIA is carried out for all major development proposals in Israel.
Regulations requiring the submission of Environmental Impact Statements were
promulgated in 1982 under the Planning and Building Law.
The regulations specify in which cases an EIS is mandatory and in which
cases it is optional, upon request by the planning agencies. An EIS is
obligatory for four kinds of projects: power stations, airports, ports, and
hazardous waste disposal sites. The regulations strongly urge the
preparation of an EIS for landing strips, marinas, main water carriers, dams
and reservoirs, sewage treatment plants, quarries and waste disposal sites
if the planning authority considers that significant environmental impacts
may occur beyond the immediate vicinity of the project. In fact, the
regional planning authorities regard this recommendation as mandating an
EIS, since all such projects must have significant impact beyond the
immediate vicinity.
The regulations also require an EIS if a proposed industrial plant is
situated outside a designated industrial area and its location, scale or
operation may generate adverse impacts beyond the immediate vicinity. While
EISs for major urban and interurban roads are not included in the statutory
list, planning authorities nevertheless require the preparation of EISs for
these projects.
In addition, any planning authority (national, district or local) may
require an EIS on any plan expected to have environmental implications, and
every ministerial representative on the national or district planning levels
may require an EIS for any plan under discussion. Since the Ministry of the
Environment is represented on the national and regional planning
authorities, it can exercise its right to require an EIS if the authorities
themselves do not do so.
The EIA system ensures that all proposals for major development projects in
the coastal zone are thoroughly checked before approval.
Marine Pollution Prevention
A fund was established to finance the enforcement of marine pollution
prevention measures and to finance cleanup operations. Its income is derived
from fees imposed on all oil terminals and ships calling at Israeli ports,
and from fines on violations.
Marine pollution control activities are especially important on the Red Sea
Coast in order to prevent potential damage to the coral reef.
The dumping of waste into the sea from a vessel or aircraft is regulated
through a strict permit system (e.g., the dumping of coal ash by the Israel
Electric Corporation, and of industrial sludge by Haifa Chemicals). Even
when permitted, dumping must comply with detailed regulations specifying the
maximum level of heavy metals in the residue, the distance from shore, the
sea depth and rate of sedimentation at the dumping site, the type of vessel
used to transport the waste, as well as the implementation of a monitoring
program around the dumping site.
Tighter control of emissions into the air from sources located near the
coast (using emission standards based on TA Luft, 1986) ensure the reduction
of marine pollution due to airborne pollutants.
Major progress has also been made in the prevention of pollution from
land-based sources, including domestic and industrial waste, agricultural
runoff, and river discharges.
Regulations came into force in 1990 which prohibit the discharge of any
waste or wastewater into the sea without a permit. Previously, wastewater
discharge along the coast had been widespread; today, only in one
municipality in the north is sewage still discharged into the sea, in
accordance with a temporary permit issued pending the construction of a
suitable sewage plant. Moreover, much of Israel's wastewater is now diverted
for reuse after treatment.
Chemical pollutionderiving from industrial effluents, port chemical
terminals and ships transporting chemicalsis carefully controlled. There
have been significant reductions in the quantities of treated or partially
treated industrial effluents reaching the sea. Handling procedures for
chemicals shipped to and from Israel are designed to ensure maximum safety
to the environment, thus preventing many chemical spill incidents from
occurring. Furthermore, all tank washing activities are carried out
according to regulations issued by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO), and no significant pollution from this source is expected.
International Aspects
Israel is a signatory to the Barcelona Convention and is currently a member
of the Bureau of the Contracting Parties. It is an active member of the
Mediterranean Action Plan, established under the auspices of the United
National Environment Programme (UNEP).
Legislation has been enacted to implement the relevant international
conventions for the prevention of marine pollution, as well as national
legislation governing the protection of on- or offshore sites and areas of
natural or cultural value (Nature Reserves and National Parks Law, and
Antiquities Law).
Israel has ratified the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol and the
London Amendment, all relating to the protection of the ozone layer.
Israel participates in the following international activities:
UNEP's IOC Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS), by recently
installing and operating a "next generation" sea level observing
station off-Hadera, recognized as Station No. 80 in the primary
network of observing stations;
The IOC research program, POEM (Physical Oceanography of the
Eastern Mediterranean);
The UNESCO research program, CIESM (Committee International pour
l'Exploration de la Mediterranee);
The IBCM program (International Bathymetric Chart of the
Mediterranean);
The UNEP research program MEDPOL, Phase 2 of pollution prevention
in the Mediterranean;
The Mediterranean Action Plan Priority Actions Programme.
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