Israel Environment Bulletin Spring 1996-5756, Vol. 19, No. 2
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
by Dr. Uri Marinov, Environmental Consultant
Conventional sources of energy are responsible for a wide range of
environmental problems. Pollutant emissions may cause smog on the local
level, acid rain on the regional level, and the greenhouse effect on the
global level. The energy sector, in general, and CO2 emissions, in
particular, are the main contributors to the greenhouse effect. Therefore,
in planning for Israel's sustainable energy development, the
environmental, economic, planning, technological and organizational
significance of these issues should be taken into account.
While operative decisions on the reduction of CO2 emissions have been slow
in coming, it is anticipated that decisions will be taken in the future on
permitted CO2 emission levels for each state, on the basis of population
and other criteria. Although Israel, with a forecasted population of 7-10
million, will only have a marginal impact on the global situation, this
country too will take part in the global effort.
Energy Policy in Israel
As a result of Israel's geopolitical condition and the cost of energy, the
considerations which guided decision makers on energy issues were nearly
always limited to supply. In the 1980s, environmental laws, regulations
and decrees began to be imposed on the Israel Electric Corporation and oil
refineries and, as a result, low sulfur oil was introduced. Environmental
issues became more dominant in decision making on fuel purchases in the
1990s, and energy policy incorporated such considerations as safe supply,
diversity of sources, low cost and environmental impact. However, with the
exception of solar energy (which accounts for only 3% of total energy
consumption), the government did little to encourage the production of
energy from local sources, such as oil shale or incineration.
While in the past, environmental considerations were largely restricted to
reductions in SO2 emissions, it is now clear that future attention will
focus on CO2 emissions. To reduce CO2 and other emissions, the following
five steps must be taken.
Increasing Production Efficiency
Since electricity production is responsible for some 30% of total CO2
emissions, increasing the efficiency of electricity production is
especially important. To implement this, the following activities should
be taken:
Legislation changes: Legislation should allow the private sector to
produce energy in addition to the Israel Electric Corporation. Today, up
to 10% of Israel's total electricity may be produced by private companies
in Israel and another 10% by overseas electricity producers. A change in
legislation would enable the establishment of smaller power plants using
cleaner and more efficient technologies, such as gas, wind and solar
turbines. It would also promote cogeneration, or combined heat and power,
in industrial plants. While energy efficiency in conventional power
generation may be as low as 35%, cogeneration can raise efficiency to 90%.
Gas turbines: The introduction of combined cycle units, which use the heat
of gas emissions, has increased the rate of energy efficiency in gas
turbines by more than 50%. Gas turbines have clear environmental
advantages when compared to conventional power plants: no sulfur dioxide
emissions, nearly no particulate emissions, a reduction of up to 90% in
nitrogen oxide emissions and a reduction of up to 60% in carbon dioxide
emissions.
Energy Conservation
The greatest environmental and economic benefits which may be derived from
sustainable energy policy are related to energy savings. Effective energy
conservation requires the integration of many activities, with special
emphasis on economic incentives and development of new technologies.
Following are some possible directions for action:
Energy savings in buildings: proper insulation can save up to 75% of the
energy required for heating and cooling systems. Energy-efficient electric
bulbs consume up to 90% less energy than conventional bulbs. Energy
savings in electrical appliances: Energy efficiency labels are required
for all electrical appliances in many countries. This is especially
important for such appliances as refrigerators, air conditioners,
freezers, dishwashers, washing machines and dryers.
Energy savings in industry: Energy savings in industry can reach 20-30%,
without additional investment. Larger savings are possible in new plants.
Economic measures: Subsidies, incentives and taxes are the most important
measures for achieving energy savings. In some European countries, taxes
on energy consumption by private consumers and organizations (rather than
industry) have been imposed, or are being considered. Subsidies on new and
efficient products, such as new electric bulbs, should be considered.
Taxes on energy producers and consumers may be imposed in accordance with
such criteria as pollutant emission levels and production and consumption
efficiency.
Energy savings in transportation: The USEPA requires consumers to be
provided with information on the engine efficiency of each car, and
requires companies to maintain an energy-efficient vehicle fleet. Public
transport, bicycle paths, and priority to cars with more than one driver
are only some of the means which may bring about significant savings in
energy use in the transport sector.
Switch from Coal and Oil to Gas Use
Gas combustion emits some 50% less CO2 to the atmosphere, for each unit of
energy, than coal combustion, and 25% less than oil combustion. Moreover,
gas combustion does not emit sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. While the
environmental advantages of a switch to gas use in power plants are clear,
the Israel Electric Corporation (IEC) stands to gain additional advantages
from gas use as well:
A switch to gas will prevent the need for scrubbers in the new power
plants of the IEC.
A switch to gas may allow the IEC to continue operation of its Tel Aviv,
Haifa and Ashdod oil-fired stations using gas, without the need for
opening new sites.
A switch to gas may solve the problem of coal ash disposal, which is
currently disposed at sea or recycled for cement production
Gas and Particulate Control
While methods exist for the reduction of SO2, NOx and particulate
emissions from stacks (e.g. electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers),
disposal of the ash and other wastes remains a significant problem. While
technologies for CO2 control will certainly be developed in the future,
disposal will remain a problem.
Increased afforestation is the only known way of reducing CO2
concentrations in the atmosphere, but the world's forested areas are fast
diminishing. It is unreasonable to assume that Israel will be able to
significantly increase the areas designated for afforestation in the
future.
Use of Alternative and Renewable Energy Sources
The forecast for the year 2000 is for the consumption of 18 million
ton-oil equivalent (TOE) and for 26 million TOE in 2020. This is
considered to be a conservative forecast which does not take into account
technological developments, on the one hand, and environmental problems
(e.g. the greenhouse effect), on the other hand.
A more recent survey, prepared by the Israel Electric Corporation in March
1996, forecasts that peak electricity demands in 2020 will reach 15,000
megawatts for a population of 7.6 million. This survey envisions that
future electricity production technologies will integrate the use of
alternative sources of energy (e.g. natural gas, liquid fuel, oil shale,
energy storage, and renewable sources of energy) with the more traditional
coal-fired generation units.
Alternative energy sources include the following:
Nuclear energy: While nuclear energy does not emit CO2 into the
atmosphere, fewer nuclear plants are being established worldwide. For
political, security, economic, technological, environmental ,
psychological and social reasons, nuclear power stations for electricity
production, which are based on existing technologies, are not an option
for Israel at this time.
Geothermal energy: It is estimated that some 15,000 megawatts may be
produced from this source in the year 2000. However, it is not expected
that this source of energy would be used in Israel in the foreseeable
future.
Wind: It is anticipated that by the year 2000, up to 10,000 megawatts of
this type of energy will be produced. While the wind energy potential is
significant, the constraints of wind turbines (in terms of siting, wind
factors, and landscape sensitivity) are substantial. Due to land scarcity,
population density and landscape and aesthetic sensitivity, this
technology is not expected to become a significant source of electricity
production in Israel.
Water: It is estimated that some 20% of the total world electricity
production is derived from hydroelectric energy. This technology is not
free of environmental problems since it requires the establishment of
large reservoirs of water, the diversion of rivers, and in some cases the
relocation of populations. Although a few small turbines were constructed
near the Jordan River in the past, the direct use of fresh water (in
contrast to pumped storage) is not expected to constitute a significant
source of electricity production in Israel in the future.
Pumped storage: The idea behind this concept is to store energy potential
or, in practice, to store electricity. Water is pumped into an elevated
reservoir during surplus electricity production and is used during peak
demand periods. Surveys on this technology were conducted both in Lake
Kinneret and in the Dead Sea. However, even if one or two turbines are
constructed, they are not expected to be a significant factor in
electricity production in the future.
Solar energy: Solar energy can supply 10,000 times more electricity than
the entire global consumption of energy. Israel has developed several
technologies for solar energy production, including a development based on
parabolic troughs which was used in the construction of power plants in
California. Israel's Weizmann Institute of Science has successfully
experimented with "solar towers," and its scientists estimate that some
25% of Israel's future energy will be supplied by solar energy. It is
anticipated that by the year 2000, the costs of producing electricity from
solar energy will be similar to today's costs of electricity production
from coal.
Fuel cells: This technology, which was first developed in the 1960s within
the framework of America's space program, has clear environmental
advantages: fuel cells are more efficient (40-60% efficiency), and they
generate almost no air pollution or noise. Fuel cells have been used to
supply electricity and heat to hospitals, hotels and offices, and will be
used at a greater scope in the future to supply electricity for lighting,
heating, and cooling.
Photovoltaic cells: These cells exploit the sun for electricity production
in private homes. The industry is growing at a rate of some 12% per year,
and it is anticipated that by the beginning of the next century, this
technology will become economically viable for use in wide areas.
Flywheel: A research study on the development of a flywheel which will
operate like a mechanical battery was conducted in the USA. Such a device
would be able to store and produce energy at an efficiency of up to 90%,
and could be used in the home to store cheap electricity at night or solar
energy during the day and to release it during peak hours when electricity
is expensive.
SNAP Technology: SNAP (Sneh Aero-electric Power) is an acronym for a
technology developed in the Technion
Israel Institute of Technology to
create electric power and desalinated water in the world deserts, using
air and a spray of water. The hot and dry air of the desert is cooled in a
tall, large-diameter chimney. This leads to a downward airflow which
reaches high velocity and activates turbines which generate electricity.
Plans have recently been made for establishing a pilot plant in Israel.
Canals: Several ideas for utilizing canals to generate hydroelectric
energy have been raised in recent decades. The best known was a proposal
to bring water from the Mediterranean Sea to the Dead Sea using the
difference in height to generate some 800 megawatts of electricity.
Additional proposals include a Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (an idea raised
within the framework of the Middle East peace process) and a canal which
would transfer water from the Mediterranean to the Beit She'an region for
discharge into the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. The environmental
impacts of all these proposals require careful investigation.
These developments are all dependent on decentralization of Israel's
electricity supply system. Israel's future system will have to be
dual-directional. Electricity will be produced and distributed, not only
in large production stations, but in thousands of small installations
which will be connected to the network and will pump or discharge
electricity from and to the network according to need.
Sustainable Development Policy
Planning for an efficient, competitive, reliable and environment-friendly
electricity production and supply system will require major reforms. A
number of parameters are vital for the success of this process including:
a competitive market for the production and sale of electricity;
incentives for the production of electricity from a wide variety of
sources;
a dual-directional supply network;
internalization of environmental considerations and priorities in the
decision making process;
fragmentation of electricity supply systems.
In light of the importance of reducing CO2 and other pollutant emissions,
Israel must develop a national strategy which is based on renewable
sources of energy, whenever this is economically feasible. While some of
the ideas advanced for energy production from renewable sources are
competitive, both economically and technologically, their part in
electricity production has remained minimal, for the following reasons:
When calculating the costs of electricity currently produced from fossil
fuels, full environmental costs to the economy are not taken into account.
Therefore, the electricity produced by conventional energy appears to be
less expensive.
The monopoly of electricity production and supply companies precludes
competition.
There are no incentives or information to private investors interested
in entering this sector.
Uncertainties exist vis a vis technologies and their reliability. Dozens
of years of conventional electricity production and supply have resulted
in conservative thought patterns.
The cost of coal and gas is relatively low.
The development of a national strategy for renewable energy requires the
formulation of a policy to overcome some of the above-stated obstacles and
problems. Policy should relate to such subjects as pollution taxes on
emissions from conventional power plants, reduced subsidies on fossil fuel
use, and national priority to the development of energy production systems
from alternative and renewable sources.
A sustainable energy policy should be based on the following components
and objectives:
To reduce oil and coal use and increase gas use for electricity
production and for industry.
To maintain CO2 emissions at the level established by international
conventions.
To examine the need for economic tools to reduce fossil fuels, including
the imposition of an energy tax.
To develop a national plan for energy conservation using all available
tools, including legislation, regulation, enforcement, incentives,
education, information, monitoring, research and development and to
implement energy conservation plans in all sectorsdomestic,
industrial, commercial and agricultural.
To develop methods for savings in the production and supply of energy,
including incentives for cogeneration plants and gas turbines.
To open the electricity production market to competition, and to connect
private and small producers to the electricity network.
To encourage the use of renewable sources of energy, especially solar
energy, through a variety of means including subsidies and incentives,
To promote research and development on energy issues.
To review the need for organizational changes in order to facilitate the
development and implementation of a sustainable energy policy.
To monitor technological and economic changes worldwide, and to develop
a policy which will be able to adopt innovative technological, economic
and administrative tools for goal achievement.
Summary
The main goal of a sustainable energy policy is to achieve efficient and
reliable energy production and supply while taking account of the
environmental, national, regional and international impacts of this
sector. It is reasonable to assume that by the beginning of the next
century, most of the problems related to air pollution from gas and
particulate emissions will be solved. However, CO2 and other greenhouse
gases will continue to constitute a major problem, and Israel will join
the world effort to reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions. For
this and for other reasons, Israel will have to switch from coal and
oil-fired electricity generation to the use of gas and renewable sources
of energy, especially solar energy. To reach this goal, Israel will have
to reform its electricity economy and to initiate intensive activities
aimed at savings in energy production and consumption, decentralization of
the production and supply system, and development of new technologies.
These reforms will require concomitant organizational, administrative,
economic and physical changes.