AIR
Factors affecting air quality in Israel today are similar to those faced
the world over. The population is increasing, and as it rises, so does
overall consumption of fuel. The increase in population is accompanied
by a rise in the standard of living; consequently, the number of
privately-owned vehicles is escalating and increased vehicular emissions
are the result. Furthermore, as the industrial base continues to expand,
increased industrial pollutants enter the atmosphere. Finally, Israel's
unique geological, topographical and climatic features compound the
problems of air pollution.
Sources of Air Pollution
The main sources of air pollution are energy production, transportation
and industry. Since these are mostly concentrated along the coastal
plain, the highest levels of pollution have been detected in this area.
In Israel, the most problematic air pollutant, as shown by air quality
monitoring carried out since 1970, is sulphur dioxide (SO2). Relatively
high concentrations of SO2 emitted for the most part by power plants
and oil refineries are routinely monitored in the Ashdod area and the
Haifa Bay. One of the reasons for this is the high sulphur content of
the heavy fuel oil in use in Israel. The Haifa Bay, with the most
intense industrial activity in the country, coupled with the difficult
atmospheric dispersion conditions caused by the influence of the
Mediterranean Sea and the complex topography of Mount Carmel, is
probably the most polluted area in the country, followed by Ashdod as a
close second.
Natural conditions for pollution dispersion in the atmosphere of the
coastal plain are not favorable. With the extremely high amount of solar
radiation prevalent in this part of the world, photochemical air
pollution similar to that occurring in Los Angeles, California is
possible. A trend of increasing ozone concentration is indeed evident.
Dense vehicular traffic causes air pollution problems, mainly in the
heavily populated urban centers of Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa. Black
soot emitted from diesel-powered vehicles is the reason for many public
complaints, and is also the cause of visible soiling of stone buildings
in the city centers. Israel lacks a developed railway system, and
therefore diesel-powered buses and trucks account for a very high
proportion of the vehicular fleet (about 17%); over 15% of these buses
are of an old and smoky model built before 1973. As the rate of
motorization increases, air quality, especially in the coastal area, may
further deteriorate.
Ambient Air Quality Standards and Monitoring
Israeli ambient air quality standards, first promulgated in 1971,
covered five pollutants which are mainly the product of fuel combustion:
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), lead
particles (Pb) and soiling index (SI) as well as oxidants (Ox), hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) and total suspended particulates (TSP). These air quality
standards incorporated a frequency parameter which allowed an excess of
the level of pollution specified in the standard for about 1% of the
time of the year.
Since 1982, these ambient standards have been under review by an
interdisciplinary committee of experts, which has prepared proposals for
modified standards including appropriate criteria documents for SO2,
ozone (O3), CO, and particulate matter (TSP, respirable particulates
(PM10), dust fall, lead and sulphates). A revised version of the 1971
regulations has recently come into force. It includes, in addition to
the pollutants previously noted, additional standards based on the 1987
World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines. These standards
include dichloroethane, dichloromethane, toluene, tetrachloroethylene,
styrene, formaldehyde and the metals vanadium and cadmium. The
statistical terminology (i.e. the allowance to exceed the specified
level for 1% of the time) was omitted from the new version of the
standards, with the exception of SO2 (Table 1).
Routine monitoring of air pollutants started in Israel in 1969, when the
Ministry of Health and the Israel Electric Corporation began operating
ten monitoring stations in the Tel Aviv area around the "Reading D"
power plant. In 1976, local environmental units began operating
additional monitoring stations in Haifa, Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Ashdod and
Be'er Sheva.
In 1979, the first automatic real-time air pollution monitoring network
was established in the Hadera area around the new 1400 MW coal-fired
power plant, including 12 monitoring stations and a computerized control
center. In 1986, a second network, which includes five stations, started
to monitor air quality in the vicinity of the power plant and oil
refinery of Ashdod. Israel's third real-time network, with seven
monitoring stations, began operation in Ashkelon in 1989; the fourth,
with eight monitoring stations, began operation in 1990 in the Haifa
area. In addition to SO2, NOx, CO, O3, TSP and hydrocarbons (HC)
monitoring, these networks also measure meteorological parameters such
as wind speed and direction, temperature and barometric pressure.
Sulphur dioxide is a severe problem, especially in the Haifa and Ashdod
areas. In Haifa, the high SO2 concentrations occur at night or early
mornings, especially in spring and autumn, whereas in the Ashdod area
and in Tel Aviv, they occur during the daylight hours of the summer
months. The introduction of intermittent control systems (in which low
sulphur fuel is used in unfavorable atmospheric dispersion conditions)
has led to reductions in SO2 concentrations (Figure 24).
Dust levels are naturally high in Israel, particularly in the area of
Be'er Sheva, where dust storms occur most frequently. A significant
proportion of dust can also be attributed to human activities.
Particulate matter pollution in the form of black soot from
diesel-powered vehicles constitutes a severe problem.
The data from the monitoring networks regarding nitrogen oxides and
carbon monoxide do not show high concentrations; however, recent studies
have shown that high levels of these pollutants exist in the congested
urban center of Jerusalem.
The extremely high amounts of solar radiation in the Middle East result
in photochemical air pollution. Ozone levels are quite high, and a trend
of increased concentrations is evident. In Jerusalem, ozone levels are
high as a result of wind currents from the coastal plane.
Energy Requirements and Air Pollutant Emissions
Israel relies on fossil fuels for most of its energy requirements.
Natural gas and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) are used in Israel in
small quantities: natural gas for industry (0.3% of the total national
energy requirement), and LPG mainly for domestic heating such as space
and water heating and cooking (1.5% of the total national energy
requirement). Use of gasoline constitutes about 13% of the total
national energy requirement, and kerosene about 7%, most of which is
supplied as jet fuel and a small portion for domestic space heating and
cooking. Distillate fuel oil (equivalent to ASTM fuel oil No. 2) is used
(about 11% of the total energy requirement) by diesel-powered vehicles
and other stationary diesel motors, by electric gas turbines and for
domestic space and water heating.
Relatively small amounts of light residual oil (equivalent to ASTM fuel
oil grades No. 4 and 5) are used mostly for steam generation in small to
medium sized boilers, especially when the plant is located near
residential areas.
Heavy fuel oil (equivalent to ASTM fuel oil grade No. 6), constituting
about 32% of the total energy requirement of Israel, is used mainly for
electricity generation (22% of the energy requirement), and by heavy
industries such as oil refineries, in cement kilns, and in large
industrial steam boilers.
Most of the coal in Israel is used for electricity generation (96%); the
rest goes to cement production and steam generation. Coal supplies 21%
of the total energy requirement of the country.
In order to assess total emissions of combustion-derived pollutants, an
emission inventory was prepared. The inventory was calculated using
emission factors published by the US Environmental Protection Agency,
and adapted to the specific conditions existing in Israel.
Electricity production is the major source of sulphur dioxide emissions
responsible for 70% of emissions; heavy industry and oil refining
contribute about 18%; transportation accounts for about 4% and medium
industry, based on light fuel oil, for about 5%.
The emissions inventory shows that in spite of a 30% increase in the
total national energy requirement that occurred between 1980 and 1989,
total SO2 emissions were reduced by 5%. This reduction resulted from the
partial shift in electricity generation from high sulphur residual oil
(3.5% sulphur) to relatively low sulphur coal (about 1% sulphur) during
periods of difficult atmospheric conditions, and from the general
reduction in the average sulphur content of the heavy residual oil to
2.7%. With increased consumption of oil and coal, an increase in SO2
emissions was noted in 1990, but by 1991, another decrease occurred due
to the further reduction of the average sulphur content of the heavy
residual oil to 2.5%. Thus SO2 emissions were reduced by 14% between
1980 and 1991 (Figure 25).
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions have risen dramatically, by 84.2% between
1980 and 1991, due largely to increased automobile use. Gasoline-powered
vehicles account for 92% of CO emissions; diesel-powered trucks, buses
and taxis contribute about 7%. A reduction in emissions is expected to
occur with the introduction of cars equipped with catalytic converters,
beginning in 1991. By 1993 all new automobiles will be required to have
catalytic converters. The rate of emission of lead particles has fallen
because of the adoption of a maximum permissible level of lead content
in gasoline of 0.15 grams/liter, down from 42 grams/liter in 1987. With
the gradual introduction of unleaded gasoline, further reduction in lead
emissions is expected.
Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions have risen as a result of increased gasoline
use (88.2% since 1980). However, because gasoline specifications in
Israel dictate a rather low vapor pressure (RVP of 8.5 psig), losses
into the air from evaporation are reduced and the overall quantities of
HC emissions are not large.
Most of the total suspended particulates (TSP) emissions originate from
the combustion of heavy residual oil, rich in asphaltenes and sulphur
which produce black soot, fly ash and sulphate particles. The diesel oil
specifications in Israel allow a high sulphur content of 0.4%, which
also contributes to increased TSP emissions from diesel-powered vehicles
and stationary diesel motors. However, TSP emissions have not increased
significantly over the past decade, mainly because of the introduction
of coal- fired power plants, in which particulate matter emissions are
controlled by high efficiency electrostatic precipitators.
Increased demand for fossil fuels has resulted in higher carbon dioxide
(CO2) and NOx emissions. Nitrogen oxide emissions, attributable largely
to vehicle emissions (52%) and to electricity production (40%),
increased by 94.8% between 1980 and 1991 (Figure 26).
Air Pollution Control and Enforcement
The policy of the Ministry of the Environment is based on limiting air
pollution through rational physical planning, rather than controlling
emissions after nuisances have appeared, or rectifying a bad
environmental situation that has developed over the years.
The Planning and Building Law, through its Environmental Impact
Statements Regulation (1982), serves as one of the main tools for air
quality preservation, by restricting emissions of air pollutants from
planned installations. Preparation of an environmental impact statement
(EIS) is required for any of the following types of projects, if
significant environmental impact is expected: electric power plants,
hazardous waste disposal sites, mines and quarries, and industrial
plants located outside areas assigned for industrial activities whose
siting, scope of activity or production processes are likely to cause a
significant impact on the environment beyond the local neighborhood.
Some of the projects for which EISs have been prepared include the
coal-fired electric power plants in Hadera (1,400 MW) and Ashkelon
(1,100 MW), the crude oil refineries in Haifa and Ashdod, and the cement
plants in Haifa, Bet Shemesh and Ramle.
One of the most important legal instruments in Israel for controlling
air pollution from stationary sources is the personal decree. Personal
decrees are issued by the Minister of the Environment under the
authority of the Abatement of Nuisances Law. They give specific
instructions to polluters on how to prevent air pollution, and have been
issued to a number of older power plants, crude oil refineries, cement
plants, the phosphate loading terminal in Ashdod Port, several chemical
and petrochemical plants, two asphalt plants, a food production factory,
and a lead battery factory.
Steps to prevent air pollution can also be enforced through the
introduction of special environmental conditions into the business
licenses of problematic plants, under the Licensing of Businesses Law.
Control and enforcement or air pollution laws in Israel is carried out
mainly by the environmental protection units of the local authorities.
Air Quality Management, Present and Future
To improve air quality in Israel, a comprehensive air pollution action
program was launched in 1987. While progress has been achieved in some
areas, most of the issues included in the original program can still
serve as a basis for future action. Other issues placing emphasis on
technological solutions to pollutant emissions from both stationary and
mobile sources have been added more recently. Following is a synopsis
of the Ministry of the Environment's ten-point program:
1. In 1987, it was recommended that ambient air quality standards
be revised and expanded so that they will constitute national goals for
air quality, and will include a list of standards for chemical
substances and hazardous air pollutants, in addition to the
combustion-generated pollutants. As per the recommendation, updated air
quality standards were indeed published in 1992. Israeli environmental
standards should be in accord with international requirements such as
those set by the provisions of global conventions and protocols.
2. Performance and emission standards suitable to the conditions in
Israel should be promulgated. This will eliminate the need to rely on
personal decrees for enforcement in the future. First on the list of
priorities for setting performance standards should be large power plant
steam boilers, medium-sized industrial steam boilers and cement kilns.
The most important emission standards to be set are for the pollutants
SO2, NOx, and particulate matter emitted from all sizes of stationary
fuel combustion installations, and for CO, smoke, NOx, and HC emitted
from mobile sources. Emission standards are now being prepared and will
be promulgated. At present, emission standards are set within the
framework of personal decrees to polluting plants and within the context
of the Licensing of Businesses Law.
3. Tighter standards for fuel quality, based on environmental
considerations, should be promulgated. It is especially important to
reduce the sulphur content in heavy residual oil and in diesel oil. It
should be noted that the lead content in gasoline has been reduced to
0.15 grams/liter, and that the sulphur content in heavy residual fuel
has been reduced to 2.5% Further reductions are required.
4. The use of oxygenated fuels and other types of energy as
alternatives to gasoline for motor vehicles should be encouraged. A
broad and efficient system for controlling motor vehicle emissions
should be established. Catalytic converters will become mandatory in all
new vehicles as of August 1993. Drivers will be encouraged to use
low-volatility unleaded gasoline.
5. Regulations on the prevention of burning at waste disposal sites
have been promulgated. Present policy is to tighten enforcement of the
regulations.
6. Old and smoky buses in city centers should be taken out of
service at a faster rate than is done today. New regulations are now
being prepared on smoke emissions by diesel vehicles. Modern and
energy-efficient public transportation systems should be established to
replace both private and public motor vehicles, especially in the Tel
Aviv and Haifa areas.
7. The use of CFCs and halons in Israel should be reduced and
subsequently abolished altogether, as required by the Montreal Protocol.
Israel is currently undertaking the necessary steps to ratify the
Montreal Protocol. Emissions of "greenhouse" gases (such as CO2) should
be reduced and energy conservation should be encouraged in all sectors.
8. More air quality monitoring systems should be established in
areas not yet covered, such as the Tel Aviv area, the Galilee, and the
Negev. Intermittent control systems, dictating a switch to very low
sulphur fuel when required, should be expanded and strengthened, and an
air quality monitoring system, based on remote sensing, should be
developed. A national center for air quality data storage and analysis,
based on data obtained from the regional monitoring network, should be
established in the Ministry of the Environment. A country-wide air
pollution dispersion model should be developed to assess the impact of
large national projects such as power plants on air quality.
9. Administrative measures should be taken to strengthen
enforcement of air pollution laws and regulations, especially the
imposition of heavy fines on offenders. Inspection authorities in
environmental units should be equipped to provide high-quality stack and
exhaust sampling services.
10. Research on air pollution control and air quality monitoring
should be expanded and more funds should be provided for that purpose.
Legal Framework for Air Pollution Prevention
The Abatement of Nuisances Law of 1961 is the principal legislative
instrument for controlling air pollution. The law deals in a broad
fashion with the prevention of air pollution, stating that a person
shall not cause any considerable or unreasonable pollution of the air
from any source whatsoever, if it disturbs, or is likely to disturb
anyone nearby. In a similar manner, the law deals with the more specific
nuisances of odors. The law authorizes the Minister of the Environment
to promulgate regulations defining what constitutes considerable or
unreasonable air pollution and odors. Israeli ambient air quality
standards have been defined in a regulation first promulgated in 1971
and revised in 1992.
The law also empowers the Minister of the Environment to address
specific polluters with personal decrees, which instruct them on the
steps they should take to prevent the nuisances which they create. These
decrees have become the backbone for controlling industrial air
pollution. The Abatement of Nuisances Law further provides that any
permit required for the operation of an undertaking shall be conditional
upon compliance with the various provisions of the law.
Local authorities may enact by-laws on air pollution prevention within
the framework of the Abatement of Nuisances Law. The municipality of
Petah Tikva, near Tel Aviv, was the first local authority to enact a
by-law on air pollution prevention in 1988. It grants the municipality
new tools with which to handle air pollution and odors from industrial
plants within its jurisdiction. Contravention of the law is a criminal
offense, as well as grounds for a civil procedure.
Regulations that have been promulgated pursuant to the Abatement of
Nuisances Law include:
* The Air Pollution from Premises Regulation, 1962, which
prohibits emissions of black smoke into the air (in accordance
to the Ringelmann Chart), and the Air Pollution from Vehicles
Regulation, 1963, which prohibits the emission of black smoke
from motor vehicles (in accordance to the Hartridge Smoke
Meter). A companion regulation details how to measure smoke
from vehicles;
* The Air Quality Regulation, 1971, revised and expanded in
1992, defines unreasonable air pollution for specific levels
of air pollutants;
* The Emission of Particulate Matter in the Air Regulation,
1972, defines the permissible emission rate of particulate
matter from an industrial facility in terms of the quantity of
raw materials supplied to the production process;
* The Air Pollution from Heavy Fuel Oil Burners used for
Household Heating Regulation, 1972, prohibits the use of heavy
fuel oil in households for central space heating systems;
* The Prevention of Unreasonable Air and Smell Pollution from
Solid Waste Disposal Sites Regulation, 1990, prohibits the
burning of waste at solid waste disposal sites and requires
operators to undertake means to operate such facilities in a
manner that shall prevent emissions of air pollution, smoke
and odors.
The Traffic Ordinance, New Version (1961) authorizes traffic magistrates
to enforce those provisions of the Abatement of Nuisances Law which
involve motor vehicles. Regulations promulgated under this ordinance
prohibit the registration of a vehicle unless it conforms with
inspection standards for emissions, including some European Community
standards.
A 1982 regulation within the framework of the Planning and Building Law,
1965, prohibits the planning authorities from considering plans for
certain types of projects, including projects which are expected to
cause air pollution, unless environmental impact statements have been
submitted for them.
The Licensing of Businesses Law allows local authorities to impose
special environmental limits for the issuance of business licenses;
these limits may be based on US Environmental Protection Agency
regulations, on emissions standards issued by the Federal Government of
Germany, or on other standards.