CHAPTER THREE
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The wilderness and the dry land
shall be glad; and the desert shall
rejoice, and blossom as the lily. It
shall blossom abundantly, and
rejoice,yea, with joy and singing.
Isaiah XXXV:1-2
NATURE AND LANDSCAPE PROTECTION
Natural Landscapes
Landscapes in Israel have archeological, historical and cultural
significance beyond their aesthetic and environmental worth. Thus, even
nature reserves designed to protect a particular ecosystem often have
biblical and historical associations, or archeological remnants. For
Israel, protecting nature is part of reuniting with the nation's past.
The country has demonstrated its long-term commitment to conservation by
setting aside nearly one quarter of the entire land area for
preservation within the framework of district and national outline
schemes.
Israel is at a crossroads of climatic and botanic regions. The main
topographic formation is the Rift Valley, running north- south along the
east of the country for about 400 km. Physical conditions along the
valley change rapidly from the alpine environment along the northern
border (at an elevation of 1,000 m), to the subtropical environment of
the shores of the Sea of Galilee (where elevation is -210 m), to the
Dead Sea (-400 m, the lowest point on earth), and the Arava, a desert
plain extending south to Eilat at the northern tip of the Red Sea.
Topographical variations in the northern half of the country divide it
into three regions: the limestone formations of the north and center
(the Galilee Mountains and the Judean hills); the alluvial valley of the
upper Jordan River and the valleys of Jezreel and Bet Shean, linking the
Rift Valley and the Mediterranean from east to west; and the coastal
plain, with sandstone ridges, sand dune areas, and fertile alluvial
soils. The climate along the coast is typically Mediterranean, with hot,
fairly humid summers and cooler, rainy winters.
The southern half of the country can be classified as desert, with
precipitation less than 250 mm yearly (as low as 20 mm per annum at the
southern tip of the country). The Negev desert contains unique features
such as makhteshes (deep oval crater-like valleys drained by one main
river bed), and magmatic metamorphic rock structures.
Israel's location at the meeting point of four phytogeographic and
zoogeographic zones the Mediterranean, the Irano-Turanian (steppe),
the Saharo-Sindic, and the Sudanese gives the country a rich variety
of plant and animal life. There are some 2,600 plant species (150 of
them indigenous to Israel), 8 amphibian, 90 reptile, 480 bird and 70
mammal species.
Woodlands and Afforestation
Natural woodland covers about 225,000 hectares in Israel. Most of this
is protected in nature reserves and national parks. About half of
Israeli woodland is Mediterranean scrub vegetation, with only a small
proportion (40,000 hectares) fully grown natural woodland.
Before 1948, uncontrolled grazing was permitted, leading to degradation
of Israel's natural scrub forests. Today, cattle, sheep and goat grazing
in Israel is regulated, and confined for the most part to fenced areas.
Of a maximum potential of about a million hectares, only 200,000 are
currently being used for grazing.
In 1981, a National Outline Scheme for Forests and Afforestation
designated 292 areas comprising 128,400 hectares for conservation as
forest land. Long before the national outline scheme, decades of
planting by the Jewish National Fund (JNF) had resulted in the
regreening of many barren areas. The JNF was originally established in
1901 for the purpose of acquiring and developing land for Jewish
settlement in Turkish Palestine. In addition to the 96,300 hectares of
agricultural land purchased by the JNF before the establishment of the
State, 2,000 hectares of land unsuitable for agriculture had been
planted with over 5.3 million trees. By the end of 1991, the JNF had
planted 190 million trees in Israel spanning 80,000 hectares.
Much of the JNF's work today is concentrated in its afforestation
branch, which is responsible for tending saplings in nurseries, planting
new trees, thinning and tending forest growth, preventing fire,
protecting woodlands against pests and diseases, and forest recreation.
The JNF's early plantings were composed of predominantly pine and
cypress in the north, and eucalyptus in the south. The Jerusalem pine
proved to be fast-growing, drought-resistant, and able to take root
quickly in rocky soil. In later years, the Jerusalem pine fell prey to a
worm which caused wilting and degeneration of the tree trunks at first,
followed by wilting of the upper branches and foliage a few years later;
the eucalyptus was attacked by insects that bore into the trunks of
weaker trees. These and other considerations including the need to
adapt the type of tree to the different topography of Israel's north and
south, and the desire to reintroduce tree species which formed part of
the biblical landscape have led to the planting of a broader range of
species. In 1987, evergreens made up 65% of trees planted (of this, 11%
was Jerusalem pine), eucalyptus 8.5%, oak trees 7.5%, and the remaining
19% a mix of Judas trees, acacias, olive, almond, and others.
Although diseases, pests, and pollution do cause damage to forests in
Israel, the most serious damage is caused by summer fires. Because there
are no lightning storms in Israel during the summer, forest and brush
fires do not occur naturally. Instead, they are caused by man, whether
by accident or intent.
In 1988 alone, 1,000 hectares of planted forest, 4,000 hectares of
natural woodland, and 10,000 hectares of pasture land were destroyed by
fire. Nineteen-eighty-eight is an extreme example, as arsonists set
1,200 fires, causing three times the damage that fires had caused in the
preceding year.
Fire prevention measures include fire breaks (bald strips separating
different parts of the forest, preventing the spread of fires once they
are ignited, and permitting access for fire- fighting vehicles),
watchtowers, and patrol vehicles equipped with communication devices.
Burnt areas are rehabilitated, and planting is undertaken with redoubled
intensity.
The success of afforestation in Israel cannot be overemphasized, whether
in terms of recreation, prevention of soil erosion, or environmental
quality. In the Negev desert, 5,000 hectares of forests have been
planted. In less arid parts of the country, 75,000 hectares of green
forests grace previously barren land. That is to say, 4% of Israel's
landmass is covered with planted forests. Every year, 2,000 more
hectares are planted about 3.5 million trees. By the end of the
century, the JNF expects to double the area of forests to about 150,000
hectares.
Combatting Desertification
The Negev desert covers an area of one million hectares. Although this
represents over half the country's land area, only 7% of the population
lives there. Eight hundred thousand hectares are open, uncultivated
areas, serving partly as nature reserves, pasture land, military
training areas, and for transportation, energy and industry.
A few generations ago, the Negev extended further north than it does
today. Greening strategies implemented since 1948 have succeeded in
pushing the edge of the desert southward, and actually reversing the
process of desertification. These strategies, implemented by the JNF,
include specialized planting and development of water sources.
In the northern fringes of the Negev, an entire forest has been planted.
Its trees grow on an average annual rainfall of 280 mm, in areas where
evapotranspiration rates may reach 2,000 mm. In parts of the desert that
receive even less precipitation, limans are planted. These consist of
clusters of eucalyptus, acacia, tamarisk and other trees planted in
reinforced natural water catchment basins. Single tree planting is yet
another technique used to combat desertification in areas with even
harsher natural conditions. Existing species are improved and new trees
and shrubs developed to suit the climatic conditions of the Negev. The
results are green scenery for shade and recreation, soil conservation,
and erosion prevention.
The JNF's new program for planting single trees or clusters of trees in
areas where climatic conditions do not permit woodlands or shrubs to
grow without substantial human intervention is known as savannization.
Savannahs contain widely spaced trees and a continuous stand of
herbaceous species, mainly perennial grasses. The combination of both
types of vegetation is important, for periodic replenishment of water in
the deeper soil layers is exploited by deep-rooted trees better than
shallow-rooted grasses. Artificial savannahs can only be created by
implementing water harvesting techniques in which water runoff is
utilized to supplement the scarce winter rains. In one method, rainwater
is collected and channelled along trenches ploughed in terraces across
hill slopes to irrigate trees and shrubs. Another method involves
digging mini-catchment wells alongside individual trees to collect
winter rains, which can then permeate the soil and provide moisture to
roots during the remaining dry months of the year. These are dug on
terraced slopes, or at the foot of hills for maximum use of the drainage
pattern for each topographical area. In some areas, trees are planted
behind artificially created earth barriers to bank up runoff waters.
In light of the fact that less than 50% of rainwater in the Negev
permeates into the underground water table, and most flows down gullies
into the sea, new methods are being developed for water conservation.
One of the methods used by the JNF is the construction of dams to enrich
the existing aquifer by arresting the flow of flood waters, and letting
them seep into the ground for subsequent pumping; another method is the
construction of dams to catch runoff water.
Recycled wastewater, which cannot be used for irrigating edible
agricultural crops, may be used for the planting of groves and parks in
semi-arid areas. About 200 hectares of such areas are currently being
irrigated with recycled wastewater. Brackish water (1,000 to 2,000 ppm
of soluble salts) represents another unconventional source of irrigation
water: it is being used for salt-tolerant crops and for trees in
recreation areas.
Protection of Open Spaces Landscapes
Vital development needs in Israel have always posed a threat to the
country's open space landscape. Although many areas enjoy protected
status, these tend to be too small to preserve Israel's diverse
ecosystems and unique and varied landscape features. In order to secure
the biodiversity and the visual resources of the country, a new approach
has been formulated in an effort to integrate development and
conservation in areas which have not been granted protected status. This
new approach seeks to direct development, both in terms of siting and
features, to appropriate areas in ways which will not destroy the
ecosystem, the wildlife and the landscape features of each of Israel's
small but diverse landscape units.
A methodology for conducting nature and landscape surveys and
evaluations of Israel's open space landscapes was developed to help
realize this goal. In order to provide developers with the necessary
conservation information, open spaces throughout the country were
classified into four categories in accordance to their value,
importance, sensitivity and vulnerability. The categories are (1)
protected areas, deemed to be areas of special importance and high
sensitivity; (2) open space landscape areas, which are important for the
protection of natural landscape diversity and for recreational needs;
(3) controlled development areas, which have intermediate natural and
visual sensitivity and are thus partly appropriate for building and
development, as long as landscape protection is taken into account; and
(4) building and development areas, which have low landscape value.
In the face of accelerated population growth and industrial development,
Israel's nature and environmental bodies are according high priority to
establishment or expansion of parks and open spaces, especially along
the already congested coastal strip.
Parks, Reserves and National Sites
Nature reserves in Israel are managed by the Nature Reserves Authority
(NRA), under the joint responsibility of the Ministries of the
Environment and Agriculture. The law defines a nature reserve as an area
in which unique and characteristic animal, plant or geological forms are
preserved from undesirable changes in their appearance, biological
composition or development.
The goals of the NRA are the conservation and cultivation of Israel's
nature reserves and natural assets, development of facilities for
visitors to the reserves, protection of wildlife, promotion of
environmental issues, and maintenance of Israel's landscapes in their
natural beauty, diversity, and integrity. The NRA has developed a
computerized data base describing protected natural assets, protected
areas, species, endemic plants and fungi. The authority conducts
research on the impact of visitors on nature reserves, the
interrelationships between various species, the introduction of
controlled cattle grazing in woodland areas, and the reintroduction of
once-indigenous animals that have disappeared from the area. It has also
constructed special feeding platforms to serve Israel's endangered
raptors, including the Negev lappet- faced vulture, and a breeding
center for predators such as foxes, wolves, hyenas and wild cats.
Nature reserves represent the entire spectrum of Israel's unique natural
heritage, including Mediterranean type forests; seaside landscapes; sand
dunes; water landscapes; desert and crater landscapes; and oases.
Outside the confines of nature reserves, hundreds of plant and animal
species (including ferns, wildflowers, shrubs, trees and fish) and
minerals (rock formations) have been declared "protected natural
assets." One of the NRA's functions is to protect these natural assets,
wherever they may be.
Nearly half of the 373 nature reserves designated on Israel's national
outline scheme have already been declared and developed, spanning about
530,000 hectares.
National parks are administered by the National Parks Authority (NPA),
governed by the Ministry of the Environment. The law defines national
parks as areas of scenic, historical or architectural value to be
protected and developed for the purpose of recreation.
Within the framework of Israel's National Outline Scheme for National
Parks, Nature Reserves and Landscape Reserves, 110 sites have been
designated as national parks: some are historic or archeological sites,
others are recreation and landscape sites in the open countryside. Thus
far, the NPA has developed and opened to the general public 41 national
parks. Over 100 million visits to these national parks have been
registered.
Policy issues regarding national parks and nature reserves are decided
by the National Council of National Parks and Nature Reserves. The
Council guides the NRA and the NPA, recommends areas for designation as
parks or reserves, and advises the National Planning and Building Board
on proposed changes to the national outline scheme. Its members include
representatives of government ministries, local authorities, nature
protection organizations and the public.
Israel's National Outline Scheme for Settlement Sites designates 206
sites, which are defined as "a structure or group of structures or a
part thereof, including the immediate vicinity, which are of
national-historic importance with regard to the development of the
settlement patterns of Israel." Many of these sites, representing the
dramatic period of settlement and development since the Turkish conquest
300 years ago, are being prepared for official declaration and
subsequent rehabilitation.
To further expedite conservation efforts, a voluntary public body, the
Public Council for the Preservation of Monuments and Sites, was
established in 1984.
Legal Framework for Nature Protection
In 1963, well before the establishment of an environmental
administration in Israel, the National Parks and Nature Reserves Law was
enacted, providing the legal structure for the protection of natural
habitats, wildlife, and sites of historical and architectural interest.
Pressure to revise the law recently resulted in the enactment of an
entirely new version superseding the original law the National Parks,
Nature Reserves, National Sites and Memorial Sites Law of 1992.
The new law broadens the authority of the Ministry of the Environment
within the National Parks and Nature Reserves Council, and provides for
protection of areas that are designated as national parks and nature
reserves in the national outline scheme but which have not yet been
declared and developed as such. The law also enables the NPA, upon the
invitation of a local authority, to plan and administer parks outside
areas designated as national parks. The law broadens the range of
protection due to "protected national assets": with the new provision in
force, damage to, as well as trade and commerce in, any protected asset,
are forbidden. Finally, penalties for violating some provisions of the
law have been expanded, increasing imprisonment terms from six months to
two years for damaging or trading in a protected asset, for damage to a
national site, or for behavior which contravenes rules governing conduct
in a national park or nature reserve.
Other laws designed to protect natural values and promote the
preservation of unique sites and landscapes are:
* The Antiquities Law, 1978, which empowers the Minister of
Education and Culture to protect historical and archeological
monuments and sites which pre-date 1700. Archeological sites
are the concern of the NPA when they are developed for
visitors; otherwise, they fall under the control of the
Antiquities Authority of the Ministry of Education and
Culture; and
* The Wild Animals Protection Law, 1955, which authorizes the
Minister of Agriculture to restrict the hunting of wild
animals, to issue hunting permits, and to appoint inspectors
to enforce the law.