WATER
Shortage of water is perhaps the most crucial environmental and
development problem in Israel. This deficit is exacerbated by the
deteriorating quality of water resources due to demographic, industrial
and agricultural pressures.
Israel's water sources are limited by the country's geography, geology
and climate. Seventy-five percent of annual rainfall is concentrated
into the four winter months, with at least six hot, rainless months.
Most of the annual precipitation falls in the northern part of the
country, leaving the south largely unarable. Israel's semi-arid
conditions and the unpredictability of rainfall necessitate a water
management policy which is based on the maintenance of a long-term
reserve for water regulation and use, the ability to cut allocations for
water use in drought years, and the development and use of
unconventional water sources.
Water Resources
About two-thirds of Israel's annual renewable water sources (from rain)
are collected in the three major reservoirs the coastal aquifer, the
mountain aquifer, and the Sea of Galilee. The rest is collected in other
groundwater reservoirs, flows in streams or gushes from springs.
Groundwater flows in two major aquifers: one along the coast and the
other further inland. The coastal aquifer's average annual replenishment
rate is about 280 million m3, while the inland, or mountain, aquifer has
an annual refill of about 350 million m3.
The Jordan River system is the most important surface water resource in
Israel. It is divisible into two major subsystems. The upper Jordan
includes the river's sources and northern tributaries, the Hula Valley,
and the Sea of Galilee. The lower Jordan begins at the southern tip of
the Sea of Galilee, and ends where the Jordan flows into the Dead Sea.
The two subsystems are different in their characteristics and in the
changes made in them since the Jordan waters were first used on a
national scale.
The upper Jordan is noted for the high quality of its water (with
salinity never exceeding 20 mg chloride/liter). The flow of water in the
different parts of this system is as plentiful now as in the past. The
draining of Lake Hula helped reduce water loss from evaporation in this
part of the river by about 60 million m3.
The Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret), which divides the upper and lower
portions of the Jordan River system, is the only fresh water lake in
Israel. It is located about 209 m below sea level. The area of the Sea
of Galilee is 170 km2; its maximum depth is 43 m, and its maximal volume
is about 4.3 billion m3. The water level, fluctuating in accordance with
its use in the national water system and the amount of precipitation and
inflow, varies between 213 and 208.9 m below sea level.
In the lower Jordan, annual water flow used to be approximately 1.25
billion m3 (500 million m3 each from the Sea of Galilee and the Yarmouk
River, and 250 million m3 from other tributaries). Today, the flow is
greatly reduced because the water is impounded in the Sea of Galilee and
the Yarmouk. In future, this exploitation is expected to reduce flow in
the lower river to 200 million m3 yearly. The quality of water in the
lower part of the Jordan is affected by seasonal changes in salinity,
especially as a result of the diversion of saline springs away from the
Sea of Galilee in order to reduce salination, and by industrial and
domestic effluents.
Israel's widely dispersed water resources have been consolidated into an
integrated water supply network serving all but the extreme southern
region of the country. The National Water Carrier forms the principal
leg of this system: it is composed of canals, tunnels, pipes and
reservoirs. All regional supply networks are linked to the National
Water Carrier, which conveys water from the north, where it is most
plentiful, to the south, where it is scarce. The Sea of Galilee serves
as the principal storage reservoir of the system, but groundwater pumped
from aquifers is added to the main stream of the Carrier as it flows
southward. When water demand is low due to rainfall, water from the
Carrier is used to artificially recharge groundwater sources.
Water Potential
Shortage of water is reflected in Israel's per capita water potential
350 m3 per annum, among the lowest in the world. United States per
capita water potential is, for example, 100 times larger, and that of
New Zealand nearly 300 times greater than Israel's potential. Many
Middle Eastern countries also enjoy a much greater water potential:
Syria and Turkey ten times larger; Lebanon and Egypt three times
Israel's per capita water potential. Of neighboring states, only Jordan
is poorer in water resources than Israel (Figure 20).
The total renewable water potential of Israel is less than 2,000 million
m3 per year, a quantity sufficient to irrigate about 10% of the gross
area. By the year 2000, total water resources are expected to reach
2,150 million m3 52% groundwater and fresh water springs, 31% surface
water from the Jordan watershed, 12% marginal water, and 5% floodwater.
The increase of 150 million m3 will come from treated wastewater,
rainfall-increasing techniques which could boost rainfall by 15%, and
desalination (Figure 21).
Water resource development and consumption have grown rapidly since the
establishment of the State of Israel. Today, all feasible resources are
exploited, including springs, groundwater reservoirs, phreatic and
artesian aquifers, and the Jordan river system. This latter resource,
which provides close to a third of Israel's annual water supply, is
heavily tapped. However, pumping from the Sea of Galilee cannot be
increased without the risk of increased salinity due to saline springs
on the lake bottom. Increased pumping could also adversely affect water
quality by creating an unbalanced growth of algae. The fresh water
streams of the coastal plain have been drained to the point of
nonexistence, due to tapping the water at the source and integrating it
into the national network.
Moreover, the last two decades have witnessed a net loss in renewable
water. Withdrawal of water exceeding the natural recharge rate in
Israel's coastal, sandstone aquifer has led to sea water intrusion;
Israel's inland aquifer, a deeper, karstic limestone system, has also
been penetrated, although to a lesser degree, by saline water. In recent
years, annual water consumption has nearly equalled over-withdrawal,
making restoration a very long-term, difficult goal.
Pollution of Water Sources
Under conditions of water scarcity, on the one hand, and intensive
development, on the other hand, the degradation of water quality becomes
a critical problem. Curbing the process of water quality deterioration
is one of the central challenges confronting the environmental
administration in Israel.
- The Coastal Aquifer
About one-third of Israel's population and a major portion of its
industry and agriculture are concentrated in the region overlying the
coastal aquifer. Chemical and microbial pollutants, salination,
nitrates, heavy metals, fuels and toxic organic compounds all threaten
to contaminate the aquifer. Salination of the coastal aquifer has
resulted from the intrusion of sea water and from the slow accumulation
of dissolved salts from natural sources. Overpumping further exacerbates
groundwater deterioration, since lowered groundwater levels prevent the
flushing of pollutants and salts into the sea. In the last 20 years,
chloride concentrations in the coastal aquifer have increased from 100
mg/liter to 155 mg/liter on average an average increase of 2 mg/liter
a year. The import of saline water from the Sea of Galilee for
irrigation and groundwater recharge and the use of effluents for
irrigation compound the problem. Today, the salinity level of the
coastal aquifer endangers such crops as citrus, avocado, vegetables and
flowers. The Hydrological Service estimates that by 1992 some 20% of the
wells in the coastal aquifer will reach a salinity level exceeding 250
mg/liter, unsuitable for agricultural irrigation.
Nitrate concentrations in the coastal aquifer have increased
considerably because of intensive use of fertilizers in agriculture.
Nitrate pollution also results from the use of treated effluents for
irrigation. Over the last two decades, nitrate concentrations have
doubled from 25 mg/liter to 50 mg/liter. The anticipated rise in nitrate
concentrations at an average rate of 0.2 - 1.0 mg/liter per year will
further exacerbate the problem. The Ministry of the Environment has
prepared regulations on effluent irrigation, limiting nitrate
concentrations in the irrigation of areas overlying the northern and
central parts of the coastal aquifer.
Contamination by heavy metals is minimal and is limited to areas
surrounding industrial areas. Due to the slow transit rate of heavy
metals through the ground, the problem will become more evident in
future years. The Ministry of the Environment has prescribed limitations
on heavy metal concentrations in effluent water used for irrigation of
areas overlying the coastal aquifer. Regulations proposed by the
ministry also prohibit the establishment of waste disposal sites in
areas where the risk of groundwater contamination is high.
Contamination of groundwater by fuel was discovered at five sites during
1990. A special team is responsible for various aspects of the problem,
including prevention, cleanup and surveys. The Ministry of the
Environment is upgrading its involvement in this issue through
cooperation with the team, promulgation of relevant regulations, and
surveys to assess the scope of the problem.
Data on organic micro-pollutants in water sources have only recently
started to accumulate but standards have not yet been set by the
Ministry of Health. The Ministry of the Environment has commissioned a
number of research studies on the subject. The data have revealed
relatively high levels of organic micro-pollutants, many of them
suspected carcinogens, in some of the wells of the coastal aquifer. A
survey conducted recently by the national water company, Mekorot,
revealed that wells contaminated with heavy metals from industrial areas
were also contaminated with synthetic organic chemicals. Contamination
was also discovered at other wells but at levels below international
upper limits. In its draft regulations on effluent irrigation, the
Environment Ministry prohibits irrigation with water containing
tri-halo-methanes in levels and in areas which threaten to contaminate
drinking water.
In contrast to the dearth of data and tests available on chemicals in
drinking water, tens of thousands of tests on the microbiological
quality of drinking water are conducted each year. These surveys show
that some bacterial pollution exists, especially in the north. To solve
the problem, several measures must be adopted, including separation of
wells from pollution sources, chlorination or other disinfection means
in the short and medium terms, installation of treatment systems, and
on-line monitoring in sensitive areas. Israel's regulations on drinking
water quality set a limit on the types and concentrations of microbes in
drinking water, and specify requirements for sampling and testing.
- The Mountain Aquifer
Because of the deterioration in both quantity and quality of the water
in the coastal aquifer, the mountain aquifer now constitutes the main
supplier of drinking water in the country. This deep limestone aquifer
is especially prone to contamination due to its karstic nature and
because of the quick transit of pollutants through it. The potentially
rapid rate of saline water infiltration to the aquifer from surrounding
saline water sources - - some with a salinity level higher than seawater
constitutes a real danger.
- The Sea of Galilee
During the last 50 years, several changes made in the catchment basin of
the Sea of Galilee have modified the balance of the lake's ecosystem.
Draining of the Hula Lake in the 1950s caused sediments and nutrients to
flow directly into the lake. Increased population, industry and
agriculture in the lake's watershed area led to contamination of the Sea
of Galilee by several different pollutants.
In light of the above, the need to oversee the environment of the Sea of
Galilee and its watershed and to protect it from nutrient overload,
agriculture, grazing, sewage, and even tourists, led to the organization
of an effective management system including coordination of research
with practical administration and long- range comprehensive planning. A
number of steps have been taken in recent years to prevent the
introduction of sewage and fish pond water into waterways leading into
the Sea of Galilee, resulting in marked decreases in salination levels,
bacterial and dissolved nitrogen concentrations, and number of incidents
of pesticides reaching the reservoir. On the other hand, a gradual rise
in total nitrogen concentrations, a clear decrease in zooplankton
growth, and an increase in algal biomass have been noted. Proper
management, accompanied by additional pollution-prevention activities,
is expected to halt these negative trends and even improve the quality
of the water. Water from the Sea of Galilee will meet new, stricter
drinking water standards of no more than one turbidity unit only when
filtered. The new standards are scheduled to come into effect in 1996.
Management of the Sea of Galilee is largely in the hands of the Kinneret
Authority. The Authority was established in 1971 to implement the
recommendations of the Kinneret Limnological Laboratory. Together, the
Authority and the Laboratory have proven invaluable to the well-being of
the Sea of Galilee. The Kinneret Authority works to preserve water
quality by keeping effluents out of the lake, preventing incursion from
the peaty soils of the Hula Valley, regulating agricultural activities
in the catchment basin, controlling farm runoff, and balancing the fish
population to prevent unwanted algae growth. Shore development is also
managed by the Kinneret Authority. The case of the Sea of Galilee serves
as an excellent example of what effective water quality management can
achieve.
- Streams and Rivers
The coastal rivers are the most seriously degraded of Israel's natural
systems. Few contain natural water, and some have dried up completely.
Others carry sewage of various grades of treatment, industrial
effluents, and agricultural run-off. Large quantities of silt have built
up on river bottoms. Although the rivers are flushed out by floods every
few years, this rids them of only some of these pollutants.
River rehabilitation and pollution prevention figure heavily in the
Ministry of the Environment's planning. Administrative complexities
sometimes make action on this front difficult, as rivers are usually
located under the jurisdiction of several different local authorities
and various public bodies are responsible for them. The location of
heavy pollution sources on or close to river banks adds to the problem.
An example of successful rehabilitation of a badly polluted river is the
work now in progress on the Yarkon River. The 27- kilometer long Yarkon
River, originally fed by springs which have been diverted through the
National Water Carrier into the Negev, flows through Israel's most
populated area. In an effort to improve the state of the river, the
Yarkon River Authority was set up in November 1988, with the goal of
carrying out immediate cleanup activity, restoring the Yarkon to its
former beauty, and developing recreation and holiday spots along the
river. In recent years, extensive efforts have been made to remove
accumulated trash and debris from the river and to clean the river
banks. Administrative and legislative measures are being taken to ensure
that sewage is not dumped into the river and monitoring is undertaken to
ensure that vegetation and fish are not damaged. Rehabilitation plans
are currently being formulated for additional rivers.
Sewage Treatment, Effluent Reuse and Use of Marginal Water
The combination of severe water shortage, contamination of water
resources, densely populated urban areas and highly intensive irrigated
agriculture, make it essential that Israel put wastewater treatment and
reuse high on its list of national priorities. The well-documented
climatic and geographic constraints facing Israel led its engineers and
agronomists to begin research on water reuse as soon as the State was
established.
Wastewater production has more than doubled since the mid- 1960s,
reaching about 320 million m3 annually in recent years. This figure will
increase to at least 410 million m3 by the turn of the century
with growth in both population and industry.
By law, no industrial plant which produces industrial wastewater can be
approved until it ensures adequate treatment of its wastewater prior to
discharge into the municipal sewage system. Thus, many factories have
plants of their own for treatment of industrial effluents. Better
control and monitoring are needed to ensure the law is enforced.
A national program for sewage was drawn up in 1970: by 1973, the Israel
Sewerage Project went into effect. Over $160 million were invested in
the program, which comprised a large scheme for the densely populated
Tel Aviv metropolitan area, two regional projects and forty-four
smaller-scale municipal projects.
A 1989 survey on the collection, treatment, and utilization of effluents
showed that 90% of the wastewater is seweraged, 80% is treated and 70%
is reused. The significant increase in treated sewage is attributable
primarily to the operation of the Dan Region (Metropolitan Tel Aviv)
Wastewater Plant, where the quantity of treated wastewater rose by 328%
between 1982 and 1989, from 24.6 million m3 (33.7% of the total quantity
of raw sewage) to 80.9 million m3 (100% of the raw sewage). In the rest
of the country, the quantity of treated wastewater rose by only 35%
during the same period.
The Dan Region Wastewater Project is a sophisticated system serving an
area of 220 km2 encompassing the large metropolis of Tel Aviv-Jaffa and
seven other municipalities, with a population of 1.78 million. Ninety
percent of the wastewater processed comes from households, 10% from
industry. The Dan Project provides for biological treatment of
wastewater followed by chemical treatment. The secondary effluent is
then recharged into the groundwater aquifer by means of spreading basins
for additional polishing and long-term storage. The water is eventually
pumped and used for unrestricted irrigation in Israel's arid Negev
desert. An extensive hydrological and water quality monitoring program,
carried out by means of a network of observation wells and recovery
wells surrounding the recharge basins, has confirmed the high quality of
the reclaimed water.
The objectives of the Dan Project, to prevent year-round pollution along
the Tel Aviv shoreline, and to reclaim the wastewater for agricultural
irrigation purposes, are being met.
In the Haifa region, another sophisticated, large-scale project treats
about 30 million m3 of wastewater yearly. After chlorination, the
effluent is piped eastward 30 km to irrigation reservoirs that serve the
Jezreel Valley. Numerous smaller municipal and local wastewater
treatment systems exist. The success of the Dan Project and these others
should be taken as models for those parts of the country where adequate
sewage treatment is still lacking.
Apart from the usual motives for sewage treatment sanitation, public
health, environmental quality and protection of water resources the
incentive for extensive effluent reuse in Israel has been the need for
an additional, unconventional water source for agricultural irrigation.
Effluents constitute the most readily available and cheapest source of
additional water, and provide a viable solution to Israel's water
scarcity problem. By the year 2000, over 400 million m3 of effluent may
be reused for irrigation in agriculture, replacing fresh water
allocations for that purpose.
Today, over 70% of all treated wastewater in Israel is reused in
agriculture. As 65% of all Israeli water is allocated to agriculture,
this represents an enormous savings in terms of fresh water. Increased
demand for good quality water for domestic and industrial consumption
from 33% today to over 50% of water consumed by the year 2000 will
further accelerate the transition to reclaimed water for agricultural
use in designated areas (Figure 23). Studies on the human health
consequences of permissible wastewater irrigation have shown that no
negative effects have resulted from the massive reuse of treated
wastewater practiced in Israel over the last thirty years.
The Ministry of Health maintains a permit system designed to ensure that
irrigation with effluents is limited to crops such as cotton, corn for
fodder, etc. Only highly treated effluents, after chlorination, are used
for irrigation of orchards and other edible crops for human consumption.
With the increasing severity of water shortage in Israel, and taking
into account the fact that essentially all naturally replenishible water
sources are now being fully utilized, wastewater reuse remains a major
potential source of water for agricultural use.
The only remaining potential water sources, once wastewater is fully
utilized, are implementation of cloud seeding on an even larger scale,
and desalination of brackish and sea water. Desalination techniques,
especially reverse osmosis, are already being used in some areas to
increase Israel's water potential. Extensive research on desalination is
carried out, and desalinated brackish water forms a major part of the
water supplied to Eilat, at the southern tip of Israel.
Water Conservation
Water conservation is an essential element in overall water resource
management. In the agricultural sector, substantial savings have been
achieved through technological improvements in irrigation methods,
including micro-sprinklers, drip irrigation, computerized, automated
control systems, etc. Furthermore, Israeli research on agricultural
techniques has led to the introduction of crops requiring a minimal
amount of water, or able to thrive on brackish water without diminished
yield.
In industry, water is conserved by the recirculation of cooling water
and steam, pressure reducers, and reuse of treated industrial
wastewater. Notably, despite the accelerated growth in industrial
activity in Israel, industrial use of water has not increased
substantially.
In the urban sector, municipalities have undertaken improved watering
techniques for public lawns and gardens (night-time sprinkling, for
example), and replacement and maintenance of pipes to prevent leaks and
explosions.
A highly successful public education campaign has been undertaken by the
Water Commission, based on the motto "Don't waste water every drop
counts." Citizens are encouraged to use water saving devices in homes
and gardens, to repair leaky faucets, and to report leaks in the public
sector promptly. Water conservation is now integrated into the school
curriculum, ensuring that Israeli youth grow up with an awareness of the
problem of water scarcity in their country, and the knowledge and the
tools they need in order to conserve this precious resource.
Administration
Responsibility in matters pertaining to water quantities, production and
supply is entrusted to the Minister of Agriculture, who appoints a Water
Commissioner to manage the country's water resources. The Ministry of
the Environment is responsible for water quality in all natural
resources. The Ministry of Health is responsible for the quality of
drinking water in the pipeline.
The Water Commissioner allocates water to local authorities and other
large users. The local authorities are in turn responsible for
developing, maintaining and operating the water supply systems within
their boundaries. This includes metering residential, public, commercial
and industrial use, levying progressive water charges, and publishing
information designed to encourage efficient water use.
Several other public bodies also play a role in water administration.
These include the Water Board, the Water Planning Committee, the Water
Tribunal, and other bodies which help ensure public participation in
water affairs, and provide a forum for appeal against any unreasonable,
unjustified or miscalculated decisions taken by the Water Commission or
local authorities.
Supervision and authority over wastewater treatment is divided among
four government ministries: Interior, Environment, Health, and
Agriculture. Local authorities are responsible for collection, treatment
and disposal of wastewater. While local authorities are required by law
to install sewage systems, wastewater is treated to varying degrees by
different municipalities. In the past, opposing considerations
frequently guided the numerous bodies responsible for sewage, especially
with regard to location of treatment plants, level of treatment, and
utilization of the effluent for agriculture. Recently, a decision has
been taken to appoint a national administration on sewage, composed of
representatives of government ministries and supported by a professional
advisory committee, whose role will be to review sewage plans from a
professional point of view. This committee will assess large-scale or
problematic sewage plans, including inter-regional plans, prepare sewage
plans in areas in which the local authorities have failed to do so, and
prepare a national masterplan for sewage treatment and effluent reuse.
Legal Framework for Water Protection
Soon after the establishment of the State, Israel's government declared
state ownership of all water resources. The first water laws were
enacted in 1955. Today, the Water Law of 1959 is the principal law
regulating fresh water in Israel. The law regulates, among other things,
the flow of pollutants into the State's water arteries.
In 1971 the law was amended to include prohibitions against direct or
indirect water pollution, regardless of the state of the water
beforehand. The amendment provides that no person may throw or cause to
flow into or near a water resource, any liquid, solid or gaseous
substance, or deposit any such substances in or near the water resource.
The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for a significant portion
of these provisions.
Israel's regulations on drinking water set a limit on the types and
concentrations of microbes in drinking water, and specify requirements
for sampling and testing. Recent amendments to these regulations,
promulgated within the framework of the Public Health Ordinance, define
water as unfit for drinking if routine microbiological tests reveal more
than three coliform microbes or one faecal coliform in a water sample of
100 mm. Regulations promulgated under the same Ordinance specify the
treatment required for wastewater, and list the crops on which effluent
can be used after receiving various levels of treatment.
In 1991, an amendment to the Water Law was approved. The amendment is
designed to facilitate more effective enforcement by such means as
significantly harsher fines ($62,500 as opposed to less than $2,000
previously), and obligatory cleanup by polluters. Regulations
promulgated pursuant to the law include provisions for the prevention of
water pollution from the rinsing of chemical and or biological
substances, prohibitions against aerial spraying for agricultural
purposes near water sources, and regulations regarding prevention of
water pollution from cesspools and septic tanks. More recently, the
Ministry of the Environment has prepared regulations prohibiting the
placement of sewage lines close to wells, and regulating irrigation with
effluents in hydrologically sensitive areas.
The Model Local Authorities By-Law (Discharge of Industrial Sewage into
the Sewerage System), 1981, charges all generators of wastewater with
responsibility for adequate treatment and disposal in a manner which
will avoid health and environmental nuisances and the contamination of
water sources. The model by-law has been adopted by many municipalities.
In addition, regulations under the Prevention of Sea Pollution
(Land-Based Sources Law, 1988) forbid the discharge of wastewater into
the sea.
The Local Authorities Sewage Law of 1962 prescribes the rights and
duties of local authorities in the design, construction and maintenance
of sewage systems. This law requires each local authority to maintain
its sewage system in proper condition.
The Streams and Springs Authorities Law, 1965, empowers the Minister of
the Environment to establish an authority for a particular stream or
part of a stream, a spring or any other water source. The functions of
such authorities include the abatement of nuisances and prevention of
pollution of the stream or water source for which they are responsible.