State of Israel
Ministry of the Environment
THE ENVIRONMENT IN ISRAEL
NATIONAL REPORT
TO
THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE
ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
1992
"For lo, the winter is past,
the rain is over and gone its way.
The flowers are seen in the land;
the time of the birds' singing is come,
and the voice of the turtle-dove is heard in our land."
Song of Songs 2:11-12
Editor: Shoshana Gabbay
Ministry of the Environment
P.O.B. 6234
Jerusalem 91061
Israel
SUMMARY
The Environment in Israel commences with a brief history of
environmental attitudes in Israel. Beginning many thousands of years
ago, the land, the water, and the mineral resources of the country were
exploited. In some cases, this use of resources was carefully planned to
preserve the environment. Nabatean innkeepers along the spice road, for
example, developed an admirable water collection system designed to
maximize conservation and regulate consumption under the arid conditions
of the Negev desert. In other cases, Israel's resources were
overexploited. Under Ottoman rule, large tracts of forests were
destroyed, and no thought was given to replanting, to erosion control,
or to preservation of precious resources.
During the twentieth century, reafforestation and other measures to
restore the environment accompanied the spiritual reawakening of the
Jewish nation. And yet, the rush to develop an infrastructure and to
accommodate startlingly rapid population growth after the establishment
of the State resulted in fresh environmental damage. By the 1970s a
central environmental authority the Environmental Protection Service
had been created, and wide-ranging measures were taken to ensure that
environmental considerations be incorporated into land-use planning.
Environmental education became part of the school curriculum, and
monitoring networks and pollution prevention patrols were established.
In 1988 the Ministry of the Environment was created. Since then,
environmental management has become more professional and more
efficient. Authority over environmental affairs has in large part been
transferred to the Ministry of the Environment, and the role played by
other national authorities in selected areas of environmental management
has been clarified.
The future presents a particular challenge to Israel's environment. The
1990s have brought rapid population growth, which coupled with the
demands of industry, agriculture, urban expansion, and transportation
places increasing stress on Israel's resources, thus intensifying the
pressure to exploit resources without properly safeguarding the
environment. The Ministry of the Environment believes that sustainable
development can be achieved in Israel, that environmental degradation
can be arrested, and that damaged areas can be restored. The realization
of these goals depends on cooperation at all levels of Israeli
government, and among all walks of Israeli society. These reflections on
the future conclude Chapter One.
In Chapter Two, past and future trends in population and in the economic
sector are examined in more detail. Israel experienced a very high rate
of population growth during the decade following the establishment of
the State, as immigrants from Europe and from the Middle East flooded
into the country. Today immigration figures have again skyrocketed.
The population is concentrated along Israel's Mediterranean coastal
plain. Israel's second and third-largest cities are found along this
coast (the first, Jerusalem, is in the center of the country, further
inland). Israeli industry, much of Israel's agriculture, and the main
transportation arteries are also centered in the coastal area.
Israel's economy is neither predominantly agricultural nor predominantly
industrial. Together these sectors employ about 25% of the populace.
Government, tourism, business and other service sectors account for
approximately 40%. Israel exports chemicals, metallurgy, electronics,
textiles, cut diamonds, agricultural equipment, and comestibles. In
general, Israel is shifting to more high-tech industries and to
industrial activities with service characteristics.
Israel has substantial deposits of phosphates, bromine and potash, but
few other mineral resources and almost no fossil fuels. Energy needs are
met by imported oil and coal, and by innovative methods of solar power
production. Israel is poor in water, and has therefore developed highly
mechanized, high-input techniques and water-saving irrigation systems to
support agricultural needs. Israel's strongest resource is its people.
Chapter Three furnishes the reader with basic information about
environmental problems affecting Israel. The chapter is divided into
seven subsections, each ending with a description of the legislation and
enforcement measures affecting the section's topic. The first subsection
reviews nature and landscape protection in Israel. The principal
features of Israel's geography and climate are described: the Rift
Valley, to the east of the country, including the Sea of Galilee, the
Jordan River and the Dead Sea; the north and center, including the
limestone hills of Galilee and Judea, the alluvial valley of the upper
Jordan River and the Jezreel and Beit Shean valleys, and the coastal
plain; and the largely desert southern half of the country.
The subsection also describes the steps taken to cover large tracts of
land with self-sustaining tree growth, to re-afforest damaged woodlands,
and to combat desertification. The success of these efforts cannot be
over-emphasized. In the Negev desert, 5,000 hectares of forests have
been planted. In less arid parts of the country, 75,000 hectares of
green forests grace previously barren land. Thus, 4% of Israel's
landmass is covered with planted forests, creating aesthetic beauty,
providing space for recreation, helping prevent soil erosion and
improving environmental quality for all. Throughout the country, natural
habitats, wildlife and sites of historical and architectural importance
are protected through a wide network of parks, nature reserves and
national sites.
The second subsection in Chapter Three explains the complex issues
surrounding Israel's scarce water resources. The Sea of Galilee is the
most important surface water resource, while two aquifers one along
the coast and one in the mountains constitute Israel's groundwater
supply. These widely dispersed water resources have been consolidated
into an integrated water supply network composed of canals, tunnels,
pipes and reservoirs. Pollution problems affecting Israel's water supply
include increasing salinity, nitrates from fertilizers, organic micro-
pollutants, and some fuel and heavy metals contamination. The state of
Israel's rivers, once very poor, is now improving as a result of
rehabilitation efforts.
Sewage treatment, effluent reuse and use of other marginal waters are
also covered in this subsection. Since the 1970s the sewage system has
improved tremendously. The Tel Aviv metropolitan area now benefits from
a sophisticated system of wastewater collection, treatment, storage and
reuse. Installation of this system has prevented year-round pollution
along the Tel Aviv shoreline, and has served to reclaim vast quantities
of wastewater for agricultural irrigation. All-told, Israel reuses 70%
of treated wastewater. Water conservation efforts, especially technology
developed in Israel for this purpose, is also examined.
The third subsection in this chapter describes Israel's diverse coastal
and marine environments. The Mediterranean coastline, about 188 km, and
the Gulf of Eilat, are among the country's most valuable environmental
assets. They house three major ports Haifa, Ashdod and Eilat
representing gateways for the export of Israeli products and the import
of supplies. The coasts draw tourists from abroad, and serve Israeli
beach-goers and nature-lovers year-round.
In recent years, Israel has made significant progress in preventing
pollution and protecting its marine resources. The Marine and Coastal
Environment Division of the Ministry of the Environment is the national
authority responsible for this area. Funds for marine pollution
prevention are derived from fees on oil unloading terminals and ships
calling at Israeli ports, and from fines collected from violators of
marine pollution prevention laws. Achievements in the last two decades
include a tangible improvement in the amount of tar along the
Mediterranean coast, and a significant expansion in Eilat's capacity for
marine pollution control. Dumping of waste into the sea from vessels,
aircraft and from land-based sources is strictly limited, and chemical
pollution from industrial effluents, ships and harbor activities is
carefully controlled.
Israel is an active participant in the United Nations- sponsored
Mediterranean Action Plan, which provides an important forum for
regional environmental cooperation.
Air quality is the subject of the fourth subsection in Chapter Three.
The principal sources of air pollution in Israel are energy production,
transportation and industry. The most problematic pollutant is sulphur
dioxide. In addition to SO2, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone,
and total suspended particulates have been monitored regularly for two
decades to ensure that ambient air quality standards are met. Revised
standards, covering additional pollutants and modifying existing
standards, have recently come into force.
Air quality in Israel is generally acceptable. Despite a 30% increase in
national energy needs during the 1980s, SO2 emissions fell by 5% during
those years. Carbon monoxide emissions have risen because of increased
automobile use in recent years; but after 1993, when all new automobiles
will be equipped with catalytic converters, emissions should decline.
Emissions of lead particles have already diminished as a result of the
gradual reduction of the lead content in gasoline in recent years. In
contrast to these positive trends, increased demand for fossil fuels and
increased motor vehicle use have resulted in higher carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions.
To ensure the continued improvement in air quality in Israel, a
comprehensive ten-point air pollution action program was launched in
1987, and expanded in recent years. The Ministry of the Environment's
recommendations include: updated air quality standards; stricter
performance, emissions, and fuel quality standards; the use of
alternative fuels; final ratification of the Montreal Protocol, which is
almost complete; expansion and improvement of the monitoring network;
continued research on air pollution control and air quality monitoring;
fines and other administrative measures to strengthen enforcement of
existing air pollution regulations.
In the fifth subsection, hazardous materials are discussed. Safe
management of hazardous substances is one of Israel's most pressing
environmental concerns. Primary responsibility for the safe handling of
hazardous materials rests with the Ministry of the Environment; some
provisions fall within the authority of other government agencies. The
Ministry of the Environment instructs local environmental authorities on
the identification of plants producing or using hazardous substances,
methods of storage, handling and disposal. The ministry has prepared
contingency plans for industrial accidents involving hazardous
materials. It is responsible for organizing professional teams to deal
with such emergencies, and is in the process of creating a center which
will supply information on all matters relating to hazardous materials.
Israeli law requires that all hazardous waste be deposited at the
designated national disposal and treatment site at Ramat Hovav near
Be'er Sheva, unless arrangements are made and specifically approved
for appropriate treatment locally.
Because pesticides are widely used in Israel's intensive agriculture,
special provisions regulate their storage, use, and disposal.
The sixth subsection in Chapter Three describes existing provisions for
the management of solid waste. A number of factors complicate the
problem of solid waste in Israel: Israel's hot climate and small size,
and the high moisture content of the waste itself (which is largely
organic). Ninety-eight percent of solid waste is deposited in sanitary
landfills. To solve the problem of landfill management in Israel, the
Ministry of the Environment has drafted a plan calling for a reduction
in the number of landfills, and for the imposition of strict standards
for siting, operation and maintenance of the landfills.
Recycling is not yet done on a wide scale in Israel, but it is expected
to grow. Four studies have been undertaken to assess the economic,
environmental and technological feasibility of recycling the various
components of waste in Israel. Paper recycling has progressed further
than other fields, with 69% of all local cardboard and paper production
collected for recycling in 1991. A comprehensive recycling program has
been initiated in one region in northern Israel. This successful
program, which recycles all components of waste for five towns with a
total population of 150,000, will serve as a model for future recycling
projects.
The final subsection in this chapter reviews noise pollution in Israel,
and relates what measures are taken to reduce noise. The major source of
this type of nuisance is motor vehicle traffic exacerbated in Israel
by the relatively old age of the automobile fleet and the reluctance of
car owners to invest in proper maintenance. New roads are planned taking
noise pollution into consideration; existing roads pose a more difficult
problem, as sound barriers and other measures are not always feasible.
Noise from airplanes taking off and landing also contributes to the
level of noise pollution in Israel.
The Ministry of the Environment advises the national, district and local
planning authorities on the use of noise abatement measures in land-use
planning. Using sophisticated models prepared by United States
government agencies for traffic control and airport management, the
ministry has developed guidelines containing specific recommendations.
Chapter Four begins with a review of the history of environmental
administration in Israel. The first central nature- protection body was
an NGO, the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, founded five
years after the establishment of the State. During the ensuing twenty
years, several steps were taken toward centralized environmental
administration. Laws were enacted in the fields of water resources, the
abatement of nuisances, the establishment of national parks and nature
reserves, land-use, and licensing of businesses. Environmental projects
and institutions such as the National Sewage Project and the Lake
Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) Authority were instituted during this period.
The most important step taken during this period, however, was the
creation of the Environmental Protection Service in 1973. The EPS, which
eventually became part of the Ministry of the Interior, was instrumental
in the introduction of environmental impact statements into land-use
planning, establishment of an inspection patrol for the prevention of
marine pollution, up-dating and reorganization of enforcement methods
for other environmental legislation, regulation and monitoring of air
pollution from power stations and industrial plants, the incorporation
of environmental programs into school curricula, cooperation in
international environmental activities, and promotion of a number of
important environmental laws.
The focus of Chapter Four, however, is the creation, structure and
operation of the Ministry of the Environment. The ministry was
established in 1988, and the former EPS' authority transferred to it.
Responsibility in a number of other areas of environmental protection
were gradually transferred to the ministry: hazardous waste, national
parks and nature reserves, pollution of streams and springs, solid
waste, radiation, aerial spraying, pest extermination, and some aspects
of sewage collection, treatment and processing.
The three levels of operation of the Ministry of the Environment are
discussed in the continuation of the chapter. On the national level, the
ministry is responsible for formulating an integrated, comprehensive
national environmental policy and for developing specific strategies for
environmental protection. The national level consists of a professional
staff, the Environmental Research Institute, an inspection patrol, and
external agencies which include the National Parks Authority and the
Environmental Services Corporation. The ministry has partial authority
over the Lake Kinneret Authority and the Water Commission. On the
district level, the ministry coordinates between local authorities and
national land-use planners, initiates regional environmental projects,
and creates comprehensive environmental data banks. The local level
serves as the implementing arm of the central government in carrying out
environmental policy. Most municipalities include an environmental unit
for air monitoring, advice in the fields of sewage, solid and hazardous
wastes, business licensing and building permit applications, public
complaints, environmental education, and local planning. The Ministry of
the Environment vigorously advocates financial support, professional
staffing and the provision of technical and scientific equipment to
municipal governments through these local environmental units. Today,
twenty-two municipal environmental units operate. Together they serve
over 80% of the population. Plans have been drawn to establish as many
as ten new environmental units in the next few years.
The subject of Chapter Five is environmental policy. Given the rapid
rate of development, the focus of environmental policy is on preventive
measures, with the land-use planning process constituting an important
administrative framework for implementing environmental policy. Although
environmental policy rests on the principle of prevention, it is
essential to control pre-existing sources of pollution as well. Means of
abatement currently in use include pollution fees which implement the
principle of "polluter pays," helping to pay environmental expenses and
encouraging polluters to look for new technologies to economize on
resources and reduce pollution. Environmental education also forms an
important component in environmental policy. Finally, environmental laws
form the backbone of policy implementation.
In recent years, environmental litigation has expanded in Israel, both
as a result of greater public involvement in environmental issues, and
because new, stricter, more comprehensive legislation has come into
force. Moreover, the concentration of legal authority for environmental
issues in the Ministry of the Environment has made a major contribution
to the implementation of environmental policy in Israel. This part of
Chapter Four concludes with a list of the fifteen laws over which the
Ministry of the Environment has full or partial authority. The
descriptions include the name and year of enactment of each provision,
its major components, and the methods used to enforce each law.
Three major subsections follow the subsection on legislation. The first
of these is planning, containing an assessment of the land-use planning
system in Israel on the national, district and local levels. Israel's
system of national outline schemes is explained, and examples of a few
such schemes are presented. District commissions serve as links between
national planning and local implementation. Representatives of the
Ministry of the Environment participate in all deliberations of the
district commissions. Local commissions are subordinate to the district
commissions in terms of outline schemes, but they enact specific
regulations regarding the conditions for use of land and buildings in
the local area. Local planners are with increasing frequency considering
the environmental implications of proposed development projects.
Environmental impact statements, which have been used in Israel since
the mid-1970s, are essential tools in the land-use planning process.
Regulations in effect since 1982 specify which kinds of projects require
an environmental impact statement, and which cases leave planning
authorities the option of such a statement. The Ministry of the
Environment has the right to require an environmental impact statement
in any instance it deems such a statement advisable, if the planning
authorities themselves do not do so.
Geographical information systems are computer mapping or database
systems which enable the user to present physical, statistical or
thematic data in their geographical context. Such systems have been used
by the Ministry of the Environment as an important planning tool since
1988. Three databases have been developed thus far: for the
Mediterranean coast; for environmentally sensitive areas to the north of
Ashkelon and much of the Negev; and for national parks, nature reserves,
open spaces, areas of special landscape value, and afforested tracts.
The second major subsection lists economic tools available for
environmental management, and describes the use of levies to produce
revenues to finance environmental activities. Sewage fees, garbage
collection fees, and product taxes for oil unloading, quarry materials
and disposable beverage containers are examples of these.
The final subsection in Chapter Five concerns education. In 1982, in
line with the Ministry of the Environment's policy of broad
dissemination of environmental information, environmental education
centers were first established throughout Israel. These centers
eighteen in number provide educational material for both teachers and
interested citizens. They initiate lectures, seminars, environmental
tours and training courses, and support nationwide environmental events
such as Israel Environment Week, Nature Protection Week, as well as
local recycling and cleanup campaigns. The major objectives of the
environmental administration are to increase the environmental awareness
of both the public and decision makers, to educate them toward
responsibility and concern for the environment, and to enhance their
ability to contribute to environmental improvement.
The subject of Chapter Six is environmental research and technology.
Israel's scarcity of natural resources has led to the development of a
number of technologies, particularly in the fields of water treatment
and recycling. Drip irrigation systems, which deliver the minimum
possible amount of water directly to a plant's roots, constitute one of
the most widely used of these innovations. Desalination techniques have
also been developed in Israel, as have wastewater treatment and reuse
technologies. Solar energy is another field in which Israeli researchers
and manufacturers excel. Domestic consumption of solar energy in Israel
is higher than anywhere else in the world relative to total energy use.
Energy from the sun is used to heat all new domestic water systems, to
sterilize soil, to dehumidify greenhouses and evaporate chemical brine.
Israeli innovations in other fields include alternative herbicides,
water-toxin detection technology, and oil-spill control products.
Chapter Seven examines the role of non-governmental organizations in
environmental conservation and education. Israel's largest environmental
NGO is the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, founded in
1953. This organization has 50,000 active members in Israel, and a large
contingent of international supporters as well. It has built an
extensive educational network, with twenty-six field study centers
throughout the country, hundreds of youth clubs, six research and
information centers, teacher-training programs, and hundreds of
activities including walking tours, roving camps, lectures and seminars
for all sectors of the population. The Society has achieved remarkable
success in both public awareness and in on-the-ground conservation.
Other national and local environmental groups are also described: some
focus on education, land-use planning and improvement of urban
environments; others concentrate more on single issues like air
pollution; and some specialize in environmental litigation for the
benefit of all. Finally, the Jewish National Fund, although not strictly
an environmental organization, is noted for its afforestation
accomplishments, and its success in reversing desertification in the
south of Israel.
The concluding chapter in The Environment in Israel, Chapter Eight,
takes the reader outside of Israel, to examine the country's role in a
global perspective. The chapter discusses ozone depletion, climate
change, and the production of greenhouse gases. As a small country,
Israel is a small contributor to these global trends. But as a citizen
of the world environmental community, Israel is deeply concerned about
these and other shared environmental problems. Israel has taken an
active part in international efforts to conserve genetic resources,
abate air pollution, enhance water and marine quality, and in general
promote sustainable development worldwide.
In future, international cooperation will become more and more crucial
in safeguarding the world's resources. Israel hopes to be at the
forefront of environmental endeavors in all fields, and looks forward to
a day when an international environmental administration will operate
smoothly and efficiently to guarantee our common future.