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Israel Environment Bulletin Summer 1992-5752, Vol. 15, No. 3
SOME ASPECTS OF LEAD POLLUTION IN ISRAEL
HENRY A. FONER
Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhei Yisrael St., Jerusalem
95501, Israel.
ABSTRACT
The lead content of petrol used in Israel has been steadily
decreasing over the past few years from 0.42 g/litre to 0.15
g/litre. Unleaded petrol has also been introduced. Blood lead
levels measured in Israel suggest that some children may be
above the 10 ug/dl threshold now considered to be hazardous.
The lead contents of soils, food crops, water, and air in
Israel are generally low compared those in other developed
countries, but measurements indicate that lead is still being
added to surface soils. Further work in areas with heavy
traffic shows that the reduced Pb level in petrol has so far
not resulted in lower soil lead contents.
KEYWORDS: Israel, Lead pollution, soil, water, air, plants
INTRODUCTION
The effects of lead pollution on health have been extensively
discussed in recent years (Royal Commission, 1983, EPA 1986a,
b, c, d). As far as is known Israel has no acute problem of
lead poisoning, as in the U.S.A. for example. However, the
recent lowering of the amount of blood Pb considered
acceptable in children (CDC, 1991) together with the current
move to introduce lead-free petrol and the gradual adoption of
European Community standards for motor vehicles, makes this an
opportune time to review Pb pollution in Israel.
Sources of lead pollution in Israel may be divided into two
major categories: (1) Industrial and domestic and (2) vehicle
derived.
Industrial lead exposures in Israel and their effect on blood
lead levels (PbB) and health have been the subject of a number
of studies notably by Richter et al. (Richter et al., 1980,
1986). These studies showed elevated PbB levels in workers
employed in secondary lead smelters, accumulator and plastics
factories and increased PbB (and ZPP) at other sites. A major
epidemic of lead poisoning involving a number of Arab villages
was discovered in 1982 and traced to contaminated flour ground
in village mills (Hershko et al., 1984).
Based on the experience of other countries, the vast majority
of lead introduced into the environment in Israel comes from
the use of leaded petrol. The lead is added to the fuel as an
organic compound to improve performance and increase engine
life. The number of petrol burning vehicles (mostly private
cars) in Israel is increasing rapidly and so is the amount of
petrol used shown in Figure 1 (CBS, 1989, 1992.)
Figure 1. Annual petrol consumption and petrol Pb emissions in
Israel 1970-1991
Until quite recently all grades of petrol available contained
0.42 g/litre of Pb (IS-90, 1984). This was reduced to 0.30
g/litre in January 1988 and again to an average of 0.15
g/litre in 1990 (0.20 g/litre in 96 octane and 0.10 g/litre in
91 octane fuel). During the past year, unleaded fuel (<0.013 g/litre Pb) has been introduced but it is not yet widely
available. The dramatic decrease in the amount of Pb exhausted
to the atmosphere is shown in the calculated annual Pb
emissions from petrol in Figure 1.
In 1987, 1,133,000 tonnes of leaded petrol were consumed in
Israel, excluding Judea Samaria and Gaza, (Figure 1). With a
specific gravity of 0.75 (IS-90, 1984) this means that some
634 tonnes of Pb were contained in the fuel. As about 75% of
the Pb in the fuel is exhausted from the vehicle (Chamberlain,
1983) approximately 475 tonnes per annum of Pb were introduced
directly into the atmosphere from this source and dispersed
into the air, soil, water and vegetation. This Pb can enter
the human body either directly by inhalation or indirectly by
ingestion.
This paper surveys the known data on Pb pollution in Israel
with special emphasis on the distribution of Pb in air, soil,
water and edible crops. It also points out some changes which
have occurred since 1988 when the reduction of the amount of
Pb in petrol started.
BLOOD LEAD LEVELS
Blood lead levels (PbB) reflect current exposure to Pb.
Infants and children absorb Pb more readily than adults and
are also much more vulnerable to it. Acceptable PbB levels
have dropped considerably over the years. Whereas 20 years
ago PbB's of 80 ug/dl were considered acceptable, these have
dropped to 35 ug/dl for adults and 25 ug/dl for children. The
latest recommended no-effect threshold for children for
children is as low as 10 ug/dl (CDC, 1991).
PbB levels measured in Israel were usually considered to be
low and were not regarded with concern e.g. traffic policemen
in central Jerusalem have PbB's of about 12 ug/dl (Richter et
al., 1980). Exceptions can usually be traced to a specific
cause, such as work in accumulator factories or smelters
(Richter et al., 1980, 1985, 1986; Berant, 1984). Blood Pb
levels in Israel and their possible health effects have been
discussed very recently by Richter (1992). In this context, it
should be noted that sub-groups with PbB >10 ug/dl include
children in the Krayot, near Haifa and the children of lead
workers (Richter, et al., 1985, 1986). In view of the lower
no-effect thresholds now being introduced, these levels give
rise to some concern.
SOIL
Measurements were made of the lead content of about 700
samples of soil ( taken mainly from roadside sites) during the
years 1980-1984. All samples were taken in autumn before the
winter rains. Attempts were made to repeatedly sample the same
sites, but this was fraught with difficulties as many of the
sites were built on during the years. In general, two types of
sample were taken: the top 1 cm of soil (T) and a
representative soil sample comprising the top 10 cm (S). The
samples were analysed for Pb and a series of other elements as
well as for clay and organic matter.
TABLE 1
Soil sampling variability for Pb, V and Ni.
Concentration of elements in S and T layers, ug/g
Depth 0-10 cm (S) | Depth 0-1 cm (T)
Pb V Ni | Pb V Ni
52.5 57.5 50.0 95.0 45.0 40.0
80.0 55.0 45.0 135.0 47.5 55.0
55.0 55.0 45.0 115.0 45.0 37.5
65.0 55.0 47.5 140.0 40.0 40.0
85.0 55.0 47.5 105.0 42.5 47.5
50.0 57.5 50.0 70.0 52.5 45.0
37.5 50.0 45.0 57.5 57.5 47.5
45.0 50.0 40.0 70.0 50.0 40.0
40.0 57.5 40.0 67.5 50.0 40.0
50.0 60.0 40.0 65.0 52.5 40.0
65.0 50.0 35.0 75.0 40.0 35.0
Mean 57 55 44 90 48 43
CV (%) 27 6 3 32 12 13
Ratio of T/S.:- Pb = 1.60; V = 0.86; Ni = 0.96
Lead distribution in soils is particularly uneven and this can
lead to difficulties in interpretation. Table 1 shows the
lead, vanadium and nickel contents of T and S type samples
taken at 50 m intervals at a site parallel to the main road
from Lod to Ben Gurion Airport. The variability of the Pb
results is much greater than those of V and Ni and Pb is
enriched in the upper (T) layer compared to the other two
elements. These results imply a continuing input of Pb into
the soil in contrast to V and Ni.
TABLE 3
National and urban soil Pb concentrations
(all values in ug/g)
City No. of Mean Median Geometric Range
Samples Mean max min
Tel Aviv 60 177 55 62 1394 0
Haifa 95 139 28 46 1581 4
Ashdod 135 9 6 6 100 0
Be'ersheva 29 76 28 26 530 3
Jerusalem 78 145 66 71 1075 6
National 609 95 20 24 2500 0
Notes: (1) Haifa: Samples are not distributed log normally.
(2) Ashdod: Most samples taken outside town centre.
TABLE 4
Maximum soil lead concentrations found in some Israel cities
City Pb Remarks
ug/g
Jerusalem 1075 Town centre
Tel Aviv 1394 Town centre
Haifa 1581 Opposite railway station
Be'ersheva 530 Town centre
Akko 620 Town centre
Ashdod 100 Town centre
Naharyya 115 Town centre
Petah Tiqwa 839 On main Tel Aviv road
Bene Beraq 54 In railway station yard
Hebron 150 Opposite glass factory
Ramla 151 Near town centre
TABLE 2
Analyses of some constituents of soils sampled from the same
cultivated sites over a number of years
Site Year Pb CaO Ni V Organic Clay
ug/g % ug/g ug/g % %
1 JERUSALEM. Flower bed near Old City:
1981 303 * * * * *
1982 310 24.0 30 24 2.1 23
1983 412 22.6 31 36 2.3 23
1984 182 24.0 33 20 2.3 *
2 JERUSALEM. Ramat Eshkol central reservation flower bed.
1982 595 17.1 25 23 5.4 *
1983 342 13.5 40 40 2.8 32
1984 191 9.1 43 36 2.0 *
3 HAIFA. Traffic island. CENTRE:
1982 595 22.9 30 23 3.2 24
1983 516 25.2 29 28 3.0 24
1984 368 27.0 28 20 3.3 *
Traffic island. NORTH:
1982 663 22.0 30 24 4.3 26
1983 458 23.7 30 27 3.7 24
1984 406 25.2 30 22 3.0 *
Traffic island. SOUTH
1982 373 21.3 27 21 4.1 24
1983 328 24.0 26 22 3.4 13
1984 391 25.1 23 16 2.7 *
Traffic island. EAST
1982 369 19.9 35 30 3.6 28
1983 406 23.7 30 34 3.4 26
1984 384 23.2 36 31 3.4 *
Traffic island. WEST
1982 388 23.0 25 19 4.6 *
1983 388 25.8 27 29 4.1 26
1984 288 26.7 25 19 2.6 *
4 KFAR HA'YAROK JUNCTION. Strawberry field:
1982 20 0.5 7 12 <0.5 4
1983 24 0.3 7 12 <0.5 4
1984 17 0.4 5 9 <0.5 0
* signifies "not determined"
Table 2 shows the results obtained over the years at a number
of intensely cultivated sites.The data appear to show soil Pb
was sometimes decreasing over the years in these samples. This
is probably due to chance as comparison of Pb determinations
at 25 sites during the years 1983 and 1984 generally showed a
slight increase over the period. Site no. 4 is particularly
interesting as it is situated at one of the busiest road
junctions in Israel. The sampling site is 7 m from the verge,
some 20 m from a traffic light. The traffic density is about
60,000 cars/day (CBS, 1986) and the Pb concentration remained
constant at about 20 ug/g over a three year period. This is
quite typical. The Pb content of Israel soils is strongly
correlated with the amount of organic matter present. As the
amount of organic matter in most Israel soils is very low, Pb
does not accumulate. Table 3 shows the ranges of urban and
national soil Pb concentrations and Table 4 shows some maxima.
Soil Pb levels in Israel are usually very low compared to
those in other heavily motorised countries (Ward, 1989) but
are similar to those found in California (Page and Ganje,
1970) which has a similar climate.
Seventeen sites near busy roads were re-sampled in the autumn
of 1991 - i.e. after the reduction in petrol lead contents.
Eleven sites were found to have unchanged Pb contents. Three
had slightly higher and thee slightly lower Pb levels. This is
in contrast to the findings in other countries where dramatic
decreases were found in similar circumstances (Byrd et al.,
1983).
PLANTS
Ingestion of Pb in the food is an important source of PbB as
much more Pb is absorbed via the digestive system that through
the lungs (Royal Commission, 1983). Unsuccessful attempts were
made to find contaminated edible crops in areas close to heavy
motor traffic. Table 5 shows the results obtained. The
highest Pb content found was 0.7 ug/g in unwashed lettuce
close to a very busy road. The usual legal limit for Pb in
foodstuffs is 1 ug/g, fresh weight (Codex, 1985).
TABLE 5
Lead content of crops calculated to fresh weight
Crop Pb Content (ug/g)
Maximum Minimum
Lettuce (unwashed) 0.7 0.14
Lettuce (washed) 0.4 0.07
Cabbage 0.15 0.08
Carrots 0.3 0.08
Radish 0.15 0.03
Strawberry (unwashed) 0.15 0.07
Strawberry (washed) 0.15 0.07
Orange 0.25 -
Grapefruit 0.25 -
Groundnuts 0.15 -
WATER
Drinking water in Israel is derived in about equal proportions
from Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee) and from underground
sources. The Kinneret watershed is not heavily populated and
underground sources are generally covered by (alkaline)
calcareous rocks. The maximum concentration of lead found in
the Kinneret waters between 1978 and 1983 was 6 ug/litre
(Sandler et al., 1988). The lead content of wells and ground
waters is generally <10 ug/litre (Arad et al., 1984). Domestic water piping is either galvanized or plastic and it is,
therefore, not surprising that the lead content of drinking
water is generally below 10 to 20 ug/litre; the maximum
allowable amount is 50 ug/litre (Health Regs., 1989).
AIR
The concentrations of heavy metals in the air in Israel have
recently been discussed (Foner and Ganor, 1992). Values
obtained by the present author and from the literature are
summed up in Table 6.
TABLE 6
Lead in air concentrations in some cities in Israel
City Pb concn. (ug/m3) n Remarks
Max. Mean Median
1 Jerusalem - 0.21 - 74 Winter 1979
2 Jerusalem 1.2 0.5 ? - - 1977
3 Tel Aviv 2.50 1.11 8 Winter 1984
4 Tel Aviv 7.70 0.50 - - Before 1979
5 Be'ersheva 0.31 - 0.12 40 Summer 1977,
6 Arad 0.08 0.06 0.06 11 Summer 1987
Notes:
(1) Results from single sampling station near the city
centre. Refs: (Malenky et al., 1983).
(2) Ranges: City centre 1.2-0.5, suburbs 0.1-0.5. Refs:
(Richter et al., 1980).
(3) Single sampling station near the city centre. Refs:
Foner and Ganor, 1986; Ganor and Foner, 1989; Foner,
1990.
(4) Mean of geometric means from sampling stations
dispersed over the city. Refs: Donagi et al., 1979.
(5) Location not specified. Refs: Kushelevsky et al.,
1983.
(6) from 2 samplers, centrally located. Refs: Foner and
Ganor, 1992.
Comparison of air Pb concentrations in Israel with those in
the literature show that they are within the normal range
found in Europe (WHO, 1987). Concentrations in Tel Aviv in
1984 were below the Israel standard of 5 ug/m3 over 24 hours
(Air regs, 1992). The order of air Pb concentrations is Tel
Aviv > Be'er Sheva > Jerusalem > Arad which is what would be
expected from the type of traffic, climates and populations in
these towns.
CONCLUSIONS
Environmental Pb concentrations in soil, plants, water and air
in Israel are generally low. Blood Pb levels measured in the
past were considered to be low, but in the light of recent
trends, this should be reconsidered. Further information is
needed, especially in the case of children. So far there is no
evidence of a long term build-up of Pb in soils but the recent
reduction in the Pb content of petrol and the corresponding
decrease in atmospheric Pb emissions has not caused the
expected decrease in the lead content of soils.
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