It seems that while most of the western world will mark the year 2000 as the "dawn of a new era," archaeologists, for whom time is the raw material for their excavations and research, will know that the 21st century actually begins only on the first of January, 2001.
This date will signal some 150 years since the Frenchman F. de Saulcy began his excavations of the cave of tombs in Jerusalem the so-called "Tombs of the Kings." It will also be the 110th anniversary of archaeological research using scientific methods of measurement, which began with the digs of the British archaeologist, Sir Flinders Petrie, at Tel El-Hasi near the town of Kiryat Gat. Since then, Palestinian-Israeli archaeology has come a long way. In this review, we will attempt to highlight some of the more typical archaeological activities in Israel during this period, characteristics that will certainly continue into the 21st century.
What typifies archaeological activities in Israel, in comparison with other places, stems first and foremost from the history of the "Fertile Crescent." Israel is centrally located in this area, and was therefore repeatedly at the crossroads between warring troops, nomads, travelling merchants and migrating nations. Most of major powers of the ancient and modern world passed through it, or even occupied it: among them Canaanites, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans and British.
In the distant past, the Kingdom of Israel was the centre of the events that gave rise to the title of "Holy Land" to the area; alongside ancient Greece it is possible to see here the cradle of western civilization. It was this paramount fact that brought the first researchers, in the second half of the 19th century, the majority of them devout Christians, to come and excavate the sites where, 2,000 years earlier, Jesus had trod.
The first archaeological expedition conducted by a Jew, with funding from a Jewish sponsor, and at a clearly "Jewish" site, took place in 1913. The mission of the Frenchman, Raymond Weill, funded by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, was to explore Davids City in Jerusalem. Unlike archaeologists from other countries, Jewish archaeologists perceive themselves to have a direct link with the exploration of the distant past in excavations from the time of the First and Second Temples, or from the time of the Mishna and Talmud. It should be noted that interpretations of the remnants of these periods are made not only on the basis of the early history of the area, but also on internal evidence, based on the Jewish religion and culture and the Hebrew language.
The intensive activities covering the entire prehistoric and historic periods, together with the very small size of the country, gives Israel the highest ratio of ancient sites per area in the world. The Israel Antiquities Authority has a computerized list of over 14,000 sites.
However, alongside this exceptional concentration of ancient sites is the fact that in Israel the speed of development is among the highest in the world. Though development is praiseworthy in itself, it carries with it some obvious problems. Those concerned with the quality of the environment demand that every stretch of land and its flora and wildlife be conserved in their pristine state. To meet this challenge, archaeologists have to be constantly alert. National development can be of real danger to the sites of antiquity, for if they are harmed, it is irreversible (unlike a forest fire, as for example on the Carmel in 1989, where vegetation and wildlife will restore themselves, given the right conditions).
The Israel Antiquities Authority has calculated that since de Saulcys pioneering work, some 6,000 archaeological excavations and surveys, of different types and degrees of comprehensiveness, have been carried out in the area (including the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip and the West Bank). Thus, Israel is the most intensively-excavated area in the world today. Only a small percentage of the excavations are initiated by the Israel Antiquities Authority, or by foreign archaeologists. A good number of digs are executed as "salvaging excavations" which are carried out according to strict scientific criteria in places where development work has damaged an ancient site accidentally, or where planned work might damage them and there is a need to preserve part of the archaeological information to be found there.
In the last few years, there has emerged another category of archaeological excavations, and that is those undertaken in the interests of developing tourism. In places where the findings are considered of particular public interest, state funds are allocated to the researchers, both to undertake excavations and research, and simultaneously to carry out conservation activities which make it possible for the public to visit the sites. Such digs have included Beit Shean, Caesarea, Beit Govrin, Hatzeva and Banias. In these places the archaeological excavations have also contributed in no small measure to relieving local problems of unemployment.
The approach of the 21st century calls for solutions to problems caused by development and planning. Particularly in the applied sciences (such as chemistry, computers or medicine) it is possible to direct the research to the solving of contemporary problems, important to the agenda of both science and the public at large. In archaeology, on the contrary, it is very difficult to direct research to solve problems which may arise, since it is impossible to predict at which sites ancient artifacts may be found that will provide vital information.
For example, we have not yet solved satisfactorily the question of the royal seal impressions from the Kingdom of Judah, from the end of the eighth century BCE. The identity of three of the four countries that are imprinted on them are known. But the fourth, written as MMSHT, remains a mystery. Archaeology cannot direct its excavations to a specific site, the layer or construction where a missing item can be found to solve a problem. The archaeologist has patiently to await the discovery of new items which may one day come to the surface.
Over the years, the chronological sequence of historical, and not a few pre-historical, periods has become clear. It is possible to say with reasonable certainty that the dates of different historical periods and their cultures are known and that there are no blank spaces. It is difficult to believe that, with regard to the last five or six thousand years, a new period, civilization or population will be discovered, details of which are unknown to science.
But that is not to say that there is nothing left to do. Efforts must be invested to enrich information regarding each civilization, period or population. But most of the pressure will be a degree of refinement regarding dates of periods, or of this or that event, or adding additional evidence to that which has already been uncovered.
For this reason, one of the characteristics of the last decades has been the tendency to return and excavate sites which have already been excavated, with the intention of better understanding the information that archaeologists uncovered in the previous century or at the beginning of this one. It would appear that this trend will continue in the future.
Israeli archaeologists are often asked to identify the "most significant find" in our area. There are, of course, no objective criteria by which to measure this question. "Significant" could be a discovery that filled a huge gap in our knowledge. One such find was that from the Chalcolithic Period the second part of the fourth millenium BCE. A treasure of copper and ivory vessels discovered in a cave in Nahal Mishmar in the Judean desert is the jewel in the crown of this period. But more precise knowledge about the people who lived at that time in the land still requires further research based on large amounts of additional material.
Major progress in knowledge is usually made with the unearthing of written documents. Documents from Wadi Dalia, dating from the fourth century BCE, or letters from Bar Kochba from the second century CE, were major finds inasmuch as they provided information about periods of which almost nothing is known from historical sources.
However, no one would argue with the claim that the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the caves at Qirbet Qumran near the western shore of the Dead Sea in 1948 was the most important archaeological find ever made in Israel. At one stroke, a number of different fields of research were greatly enriched: archaeology, research, comparative theology, Hebrew and Aramaic studies, early Christian history all of which made a quantum leap forward. As regards the unearthing of written documents, hopefully there will be more discoveries which are rich in content and information, like that of a recently-discovered document from the ninth century BCE found in Tel Dan which is mentioned below.
The largest single excavation undertaken in Israel since 1986 is that of Bet Shean. Significant finds have been uncovered from the Roman city, which was also inhabited during the Byzantine period and in the early Arab period. Parallel to this, archaeologists re-excavated the layers of the ancient tel of the city, dating from the Bronze Age.
A large-scale excavation is being undertaken by a number of teams at Caesarea on the sea coast. Two of the largest constructions to have been unearthed are the Herodian port and amphitheatre.
At Banias, at the foot of Mount Hermon, excavations are unearthing sections of the city built by Philip, the son of Herod. Among biblical tels being excavated in recent years are the renewed excavations at Tel Hazor in the Upper Galilee, Tel Megiddo in the Valley of Jezreel, and Lachish and Tel Bayit on the coastal plain. Another large excavation is taking place at Tel Maresha (Marissa) near Beit Govrin in the coastal plain. The findings will hopefully fill gaps in our knowledge of the Hellenistic period.
In the Negev, the excavation at Hatzeva should be mentioned. Already discovered are remnants of a defended settlement from the end of the First Temple period and of the Roman period, which have been identified with the biblical Tamar. An Edomite ritual site rich in cultic objects has also been discovered.
Among ancient synagogues discovered in recent years is that at Zippori (Sepphoris), which is rich in mosaic floors and many inscriptions.
Among recently unearthed inscriptions of importance are stelae from Tel Dan. These basalt shards carry remnants of Aramaic writing from the ninth century BCE. One inscription recalls the "King of Israel" and also "the House of David" as the name of the sovereigns house in Judea. This is the first time that the name of David has come to light outside the Bible.
Finally, it is worthwhile attempting to evaluate the influence on archaeological activities of the political changes in this area. The peace with Egypt put a stop to archaeological work which had been undertaken over a period of 15 years in the Sinai Peninsula. At the end of 1994, all the artifacts that had been found there were returned to Egypt. Israel thus became the first state to act in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in Areas of Armed Conflict. It also became possible for Israeli Egyptologists to study ancient sites and objects in Egypt. However, apart from strengthening personal research relations, unfortunately, no Israeli projects in Egypt, or Egyptian ones in Israel, have yet been undertaken, nor are there any joint activities in regard to excavations.
As opposed to the opening up of archaeological vistas as a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the last few years have seen a reduction in the areas of land open to archaeologists. This was initially because of the Intifada, and today is the result of the establishment of the autonomous Palestinian Authority. On the other hand, with the signing of the peace agreement with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the area east of the Jordan River is now open for study. This is particularly important with regard to the periods, cultures and events that took place in ancient times on both sides of the river. One example is the Nabatean "Spice Route" which passed through Petra, crossed the mountains of the Negev, to the port of Gaza.
As in the past, archaeological research in Israel will once again tend to concentrate on specific areas in the country. But what is clear beyond all doubt is that Israeli archaeologists will stand before serious changes and challenges resulting from the new political environment.
(Translated by Mordechai Beck)
Ronny Reich was born in Israel and studied archaeology at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. An expert in ancient architecture of the first and second Temple periods, he has dug in Jerusalems Jewish Quarter and the Mamilla area. Since 1978, he has worked for the Israel Antiquities Authority and is responsible for the Dung Gate and Robinsons Arch excavations.