MASHAV- Israel-s International Cooperation Policies in Africa

CONTENTS Preface Introduction Opening Remarks: Mr. Haim Divon Deputy Director-General, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Head of MASHAV Summaries of Talks Mr. Eytan Bentsur Director-General, Ministry of Foreign Affairs H.E. Mr. Ignatius Olisemeka, Keynote Address International Development Cooperation: The African Perspective Mr. David W. Mulenex Reassessing Development Goals in Africa: The U.S. Experience Mr. Haim Divon Deputy Director-General, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Head of MASHAV Mr. Yigal Antebi Director, Africa I Division, Africa Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Professor Benjamin Neuberger Africa Between Dictatorship and Democracy: A Political, Economic and Social Overview Ms. Nurit Hashimshony-Yaffe NGOs as a Mechanism for Development in Africa: Emphasis on Women and Ethnic Groups Dr. Aryeh Oded The Importance of Development Cooperation in Africa MK Professor Naomi Chazan Summary, Analysis and Recommendations from Working Group Reports Mr. Benjamin Abileah Head of Planning and Evaluation Unit, MASHAV Appendix Photos

Preface

On 15 June 1997, a one-day seminar was conducted on Israel's technical cooperation policies in Africa. One of the central questions posed focused on how MASHAV will determine the use of its limited resources in cooperating with the different socio-economic sectors in African countries. This issue is underscored by the substantial number of MASHAV activities throughout the continent.

MASHAV's training programs are based, to some degree, on sub-regional African needs assessments, reflected in the conducting of international courses in Israel, tailor-made courses, as well as in-country training programs. Yet this is not enough. Given the fact that a country's development requires change every two to three years, MASHAV's Planning and Evaluation Unit is actively encouraging professional extensions and affiliates to develop programs based on the specific and current needs of each partner country. Here, the role of Israel's missions abroad is crucial in determining the nature and extent of MASHAV's activities in areas under their jurisdiction. In addition, contacts established with international/regional organizations are important in helping to identify target sectors.

Based on present data, it is apparent that during the course of the next three to five years, agriculture and food security, desertification and desert development, medicine and public health, community development, and integrated rural development will remain priority areas of concentration. However, recognizing current trends to establish market economies and the increase in private initiatives, it was agreed that more emphasis will have to be placed on small business endeavors, agri-business ventures and vocational training. A consensus was reached among all participants in the seminar that MASHAV programs should, as far as possible, serve as a "trigger" to developing viable project ventures with the private sector. This can be achieved by initiating research and development, as well as developing training programs that can be translated into bankable larger-scale enterprises.

It was also suggested that MASHAV play an active part in identifying project opportunities on the level of pre-feasibility studies, but that feasibility and business planning be left to the private sector. Moreover, the guiding principle in project identification in selected African countries should be employment oriented, with particular focus on rural and peri-urban regions.

Other issues raised include what should be the extent of Israel's technical cooperation policies in countries having a poor record in areas such as human rights and environmental conservation. The majority of participants felt that MASHAV can indeed contribute to the "winds of change" by working with mid-level professionals (future policy-makers) and NGOs to adapt a more democratic value system.

Another issue discussed was how to balance training programs in Israel with in-country courses (on-the-spot training). There was a general agreement that the modalities of training are linked, citing that graduates of international courses in Israel are often the organizers/facilitators of in-country training activities. This professional relationship should be supported.

Participants also discussed the very modest resources available to MASHAV for developing programs in Africa. Although over 25% of MASHAV's budget is allocated to activities with African countries, financial resources fall below Israel's professional capacity to contribute meaningfully to the needs of the African continent. It was concluded that MASHAV should link its programs to those sub-regional organizations working in Africa. The forum was completely convinced of the advantages of trilateral activities, not only to alleviate financial constraints but also as a way to pool the strengths of the donor partners (technological know-how, experience, and operational management) to the benefit of Africa.

Introduction

Though approaching its fortieth year of development cooperation with countries undergoing similar processes of nation-building or restructuring, Israel is far from "resting on its laurels". MASHAV the Center for International Cooperation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, responsible for designing and implementing Israel's technical development policies, has constantly sought to cooperate with countries throughout the world by adapting objectives and means to achieve the most effective results. Some say that this was due to the country's own political and economic constraints. Today, given the changing political and economic climate of the developing world, in an environment of globalization, it is crucial that MASHAV re-examine its policies and strategies.

Periodic evaluations of the MASHAV program have taken different forms. This year, Mr. Haim Divon, deputy director of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and head of MASHAV, suggested "a look within"; a day of reflection by those involved in development work. Stimulated by feedback from the African diplomatic community in Israel, academics specializing in African issues, and representatives of donor countries, more than 100 people attended the one-day seminar, including members of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, training and research institution staff members (from thirteen centers), project specialists, academics, members of the African diplomatic corps and media representatives.

All the plenary sessions were recorded, simultaneous translations in Hebrew and English were provided, and relevant materials were distributed to all participants.

The declared objectives of the seminar stated that by the day's end participants would have:

• updated information on the changing situation in Africa from the political, economic and social perspectives;
• a better idea of the strengths and weaknesses of Israel's international cooperation programs, given Africa's changing socio-economic and political situation;
• new criteria for determining innovative projects with African countries.

Workshop discussions (see Appendix), planned according to subject areas or sectors of cooperation, are integrated into this report. A summary and analysis of these discussions were then presented by Member of Knesset Professor Naomi Chazan.

The rich and diverse material presented at this seminar warrant a larger audience, and it is hoped that this abridged report will serve as a valuable point of reference to its readers.

Opening Remarks

Mr. Haim Divon
Deputy Director-General, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Head of the Center for International Cooperation

The objective of today's seminar is to examine MASHAV's goals and activities on the African continent. Through an exchange of experiences and opinions, the meeting hopes to throw light on various aspects of Israel's international cooperation policies, including

1. its effectiveness; relevance; does it meet the expectations of those involved?

2. does the pool of manpower measure up to the task?

3. are we able to achieve short-term and long-term evaluations?

Our aim today, therefore, is to listen and to learn. Cooperation is a two-way process, and in order for it to be effective it must be adapted to the development strategy of our African partners. We look forward with anticipation to hearing from the representatives of the African diplomatic community in Israel today.

Summaries of Talks

Mr. Eytan Bentsur
Director-General, Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Mr. Bentsur warmly greeted the seminar participants and extended his congratulations to Deputy Director-General Haim Divon and his colleagues for their timely initiative in organizing the seminar.

In the changing conditions in which we carry out our missions, it is essential to test and monitor the results of our activities, and I look forward to additional seminars relating to the other geographic areas where MASHAV is active. The conclusions and recommendations made will be closely studied.

The reason that Africa was chosen first goes back to the 1950s when both Israel and African countries were struggling for political and economic independence. The African continent was an important component of Israel's foreign policy, shaped from the beginning by the nation's leaders David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Sharrett, Zalman Shazar and Golda Meir. Our common problems and our cooperation became part of the Israeli ethos. Proud of this history, Israel wants to continue this tradition of cooperation, as an expression of our unconditional empathy and sympathy.

Today, thirteen ambassadors in diplomatic missions are accredited to forty-eight countries, from the Horn of Africa to Southern Africa and West Africa, including Moslem countries. MASHAV activities are quite impressive in my opinion. In 1996, 906 Africans studied in Israel, in addition to the 23,730 that preceded them in the last forty years. They studied a variety of subjects, from agriculture to health and education, dedicated to the improvement of their people's welfare. We are especially proud of the demonstration farm projects established in all corners of the African continent, as well as the outstanding work of Israeli ophthalmologists, working in field clinics.

Our discussions today will certainly have an echo in Africa, as their leaders also reflect on how best to use Israeli expertise to overcome their development challenges. African countries deserve to be helped. It would be equally fruitful for their representatives to speak out against the increasing tendency in United Nations bodies to politicize deliberations, taking precious time from the debates on true development challenges and future stability.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is deeply grateful to the Israeli experts who, through their perseverance and altruism, through their untiring contribution to the men and women with whom they work, project all that is authentic and positive in Israeli society.

Mr. Bentsur expressed the wish that this meeting concretize Israel's profound commitment to the nations of Africa, and that its conclusions echo in the community of donor countries of which Israel is a proud member.

May this meeting serve to heighten the Israeli public's awareness of the achievements of MASHAV's activity. These achievements reflect the humanitarian and the global concern that is, in my mind, the unique characteristic of Israel's foreign policy and which no international campaign of one sort or another can blur or erase from public view.

H.E. Ignatius C. Olisemeka
Ambassador of Nigeria to Israel

International Development Cooperation: The African Perspective

The subject matter, international development cooperation the African perspective, could not be more appropriate in the face of an increasingly interdependent world, based on the unprecedented advances in information technology. This shrinking of our planet, more than anything, has made us aware of the common destiny of all people regardless of race or creed.

Throughout the past decades, Africa has been a full participant in all the debates on development, placing honestly before her interlocutors the facts of colonialism, the point of departure of the African countries of today: arbitrary partition, despoliation of resources, violation of human rights, and no attempt at building democratic institutions.

In spite of the difficulties faced at the dawn of independence, African nations dealt undauntedly with the process of modernization. Considerable progress was made in education, health, housing, electricity and road infrastructure. This progress fell short of expectations, however, due to instability for which Africa must take some responsibility.

As Africans, we have realized that our destiny lies in our hands. Thus several economic initiatives such as the 1979 Lagos Plan of Action were taken. These have been beset by difficulties due to entrenched colonial structures. However, interest has been rekindled in regional groupings such as the Southern African Development Committee and the Economic Cooperation of West Africa. Post-colonial structures must yield sovereignty to regional groupings.

The recession of the 1980s inflicted casualties all around the world, and over two thirds of the population live below the poverty line. Africa, like the rest of the world, requires 'genuine assistance' to overcome its problems. Though we Africans must accept our full share of responsibility for our economic performance, the weaknesses in 'the efficient and transparent management' of our resources, and the instability of our societies, former entrenched metropolitan interests, reluctant to relinquish their power, must also be held accountable.

If not for the Marshall Aid Program to Europe after World War II, the economic landscape of Western Europe would be different today. So for Africa, a bold economic initiative of that order is called for.

In giving a brief overview of the new challenges for Africa, H.E. Olisemeka pointed to the following trends:

The Debt Burden Most of the debts were incurred to meet shortfalls in earnings from primary commodity exports and poorly conceived development projects, (the latter, on the advice of non-Africans). The decision of the World Bank, the IMF and the Paris Club to write off 80% of Africa's 250 billion dollar debt is a step in the right direction, but implementation is slow. The solution to debt crises should not be selective as in Egypt, Poland, Mexico, Russia and Jordan. It should apply also to Africa.

Trade Africa's failure to diversify exports has caused a serious loss of earnings in a declining price trend for primary exports. Intra-African trade has remained low, due to many reasons including existing colonial structures that resist such trade. For example, telephone services between Anglophone and Francophone Africa still have to be routed through Paris and London.

Science and Technology Africa lacks the industrial base and know-how for economic development.

Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) and its Effect There is growing consensus that SAP caused massive dislocations and deep misery to the population, and that its benefits have been negligible. It is indeed unfortunate that the West, which advocated SAP for African economics and wholesale removal of subsidies, has itself massive subsidies in agriculture and in other sectors of its economy.

The experiences of four decades of development have led international organizations to reassess development objectives and development indicators. Despite global GNP increases, the gains are not equally spread among (and within) nations. There is an urgent need for greater equity in income distribution and development of human resources. The new Human Development Approach (HDA) reflects this, as it sets development indicators that include employment, literacy, nutrition and life expectancy. Thus development is being re-defined beyond mere amelioration of material gains, to equipping people and institutions with the means and skills to achieve the real purpose of development. It would appear that Israel saw the vision of this new approach to international development cooperation years ago.

Despite its difficulties, Africa is the continent of the future. Albeit in condescending and paternalistic observations, there are mentions in the media of bright spots on the continent. Indeed there is the dawn of a new era in which international development cooperation must play a new role.

The debt relief measures must be implemented comprehensively. The African Growth and Opportunity Act of the U.S. Congress is a welcome step, especially its openness to African imports and incentives for private investors.

You have asked me to comment on Israel's MASHAV programs which continue to widen the pool of trained personnel in agriculture, medicine and public health, education, science and technology, cooperative and labor studies, community development and management. And the potential of trainees to have a positive impact in their respective countries must be recognized. At the same time, I would ask you to consider the following suggestions:

• Streamline the courses to avoid duplication;
• Focus on subjects that enable the desired impact on African economies;
• Facilitate implementation of skills learned by course participants;
• Enable professionals upon their return home to receive credit, additional training or use of research facilities.

David W. Mulenex
Scientific Counselor, Embassy of the United States, Tel Aviv

Reassessing Development Goals in Africa: The U.S. Experience

Over the last several months, the United States has been preparing a major initiative called Partnership for Economic Growth and Opportunity in Africa. The proposal was raised for discussion at the G7 Meeting in Denver; parts have been presented at a recent meeting in Abidjan; and the U.S. Congress is preparing draft legislation that deals with ways that the U.S. and African countries can deepen economic ties and develop the potential that has been too long delayed. (USAID will be the important player in implementing this policy.)

The initial question asked was, why the uneven record of growth in Africa in the last thirty years? In the 1960s African countries had an income on par with the East Asian countries. Now, Taiwan and Korea are thirty times richer than the countries of sub-Saharan Africa.

In 1995, per capita income was $490. Two hundred sixty-two million people lived on one dollar a day. Infant mortality at 92 per thousand was the highest in the world. More than 16% of the population lives in countries severely affected by civil war. Aid flow represents 12.4% of sub-Saharan Africa's GNP. External aid is nearly five times as important in Africa as in other parts of the developing world.

Political instability, resource allocations and macro-economic policies have kept sub-Saharan Africa from attracting private capital flows which are essential to growth. Though this sounds very bleak, there are countries in Africa displaying a range of achievements. Mauritius, Botswana, Uganda, and Ghana are examples of countries with growth and social development based on market reforms, where political instability, macro-economic policies and resource allocations are managed in the best possible way. Uganda grew by 10% in 1995, Senegal and Ghana are seeing annual growth rates of 5% to 6%, and Ethiopia had more than 12% in 1996.

Since 1994, USAID has faced a rigorous down-sizing. Thirteen bilateral missions will close at the end of September, 1997. Twenty missions remain, with limited programs and some key humanitarian assistance activities. USAID has been forced to reassess its own record of providing development and sharpen its focus on the most promising areas.

The elements of the macro-economic approach to Africa, at the core of President Clinton's report, are remarkably consistent with USAID's own analysis of the micro- and macro-economic levels of performance in Africa.

USAID pointed to four essential principles:

• Africa's success depends on African countries choosing economic reform, and these countries are more likely to benefit from donor assistance.
• Social and economic gains are not sustainable without broad-based economic growth. Donor systems cannot substitute for private investments. Furthermore, economic gains have to be used for investment in human capacity.
• Stronger governments and economies are better able to weather crises. Food security is a fundamental national and regional issue.
• Strategic coordination among donors is absolutely essential, e.g. cooperation in 'Infantel' significantly reduced infant mortality in six countries, which now have below 75 per 1000 live births and are close to WHO guidelines.

1. Food security, focusing on agriculture policy, technology, and infrastructure;
2. Trade and investment, encouraging a sound and enabling environment; regional associations, e.g. a Southern Africa Enterprise Fund of $100 million;
3. Crisis prevention through mitigation and development of private voluntary organizations, NGOs, and a supporting government policy.

The U.S. will encourage partnership on the basis of the following criteria:

• Trade and investment liberalization, including entry into bilateral investment treaties, joining the World Trade Organization and liberalization of trade and tariff policies. It is important to understand that African countries themselves have put constraints on their entry into the global economy. The U.S.-Africa two-way trade is less than 1% of U.S. trade. With a population of 600 million, this can certainly be improved upon.
• Rate of investment in human resources development, to be measured by results, e.g. in literacy and infant mortality.
• Improvement of policy management in government streamline bureaucracies, transparency, and accountability in government operations and impartial judiciary procedures.

Countries that are actively committed to these goals can opt for partnership with the U.S. on one of three levels:

• The first level , which will be broadly available, will feature:
• Enhanced market access through an enlarged General Schedule Preference (GSP) which will add 1,800 products to the current 4,000 listed.
• Increased investment support The overseas Private Investment Corporation will establish a fund of $150 million, and OPEC will give partial guarantees for up to $500 million in infrastructure investments.
• Increased support for regionalization USAID will provide up to $25 million to look at financial sector development, harmonization, privatization, and environment policy.
• Additional support for U.S.-African business relations USAID will spend $1 million to promote contacts among businessmen.
• Increased coordination with IMF, WB and ADB.
• Countries which have demonstrated accelerated growth through economic reforms will be considered for Level II partnership. This will include larger market access textiles and agricultural products will receive preferential terms on U.S. markets; assistance with debt reduction; inclusion in U.S.-African Economic Cooperation Forum; assistance with trade reforms, legal regimes, and agri-business linkages.
• Level III partnership is the keystone as it involves free trade area agreements between African countries or African regions with the U.S.

Admittedly, this partnership program is not an answer to all the challenges faced in Africa. It will not deal with degradation of land and water resources, loss of bio-diversity, urban/rural problems, gender discrimination and family planning, but it does recognize clearly that to have a positive effect, the U.S. must go step by step, and hand-in-hand, relying on the guidance of African countries through their leaders, in order to achieve the shared goals.

In conclusion, just a few remarks about the importance of coordinating donor resources in the service of these strategic goals. Israel has contributed, for decades, expertise and resources throughout Africa. There is ample room for further Israeli assistance, especially in key areas like agri-business linkages and marketing strategies. These tie in well with the U.S. perspective, just outlined. The contribution of the Government of Israel with that of other donors, under the direction of the growth-oriented leaders of African nations, will allow the African peoples to achieve the standard of life that has been so long awaited.

Mr. Haim Divon
Director of Israel's International Cooperation Program MASHAV

After forty years of development cooperation experience, we at MASHAV still try to define the term. What is its significance? This question was put, prior to the seminar, to the Israeli ambassadors serving in Africa, and the answers were varied. Some saw it as an instrument of Israel's foreign policy, others as a means of enhancing Israel's image or promoting Israel-Africa trade relations.

In my opinion, Israel's international cooperation program is a goal in itself. To reiterate Director-General Mr. Eytan Bentsur, MASHAV is the moral and ethical essence of Israel's foreign policy. The element of giving to others is the highest expression, the very soul of Israel's foreign relations.

These values are to be found in the perseverance and the untiring, goal-oriented attitudes of MASHAV's development experts.

As His Excellency, the Ambassador of Nigeria emphasized, the wrong doings of the past have to be compensated. As a donor country, Israel too takes on the Biblical commitment to share its resources with others who are still seeking.

Although Israel's leaders took this commitment upon themselves from almost the beginning of statehood, the general public is not sufficiently aware of what is being done. Furthermore, in order to enlarge the MASHAV program, public discussion and public action is imperative. Moreover, the subject of international cooperation should be part of the social studies program in Israel's junior and senior high schools. Prestigious universities all over the world offer academic degrees in development studies. How many Israeli students choose this as a major or minor subject in their higher education?

How is Israel actually contributing to the development challenge in Africa? The question is often posed in intra-departmental discussions. And, if a demonstration farm is successful, or a regional planning exercise fruitful, how does this influence our partner's macro-economic policy? In our view there is no alternative but to pool resources and cooperate with other donor countries. How are we doing it? Unfortunately it seems that there is more talk than action.

Nevertheless, the information brought today by Mr. Mulenex, that one of the four guiding principles of USAID will be strategic coordination with donor countries, is encouraging.

Israel brings to the aid pool almost 40 years of development cooperation experience, in which the training of individuals, enrichment of human resources, has developed into a fine art. How did we do this? Without being cynical, the answer is simply that MASHAV lacked the resources to develop costly programs.

Today, as we evaluate our programs and ask ourselves what is the right approach, we come to the conclusion that we have to strive for the capacity-building of both individuals and institutions. If we take the example of demonstration farm projects in Kenya, Swaziland or Ethiopia, we see that our partners are very happy with production results, and with market earnings.

Yet we ask ourselves, where do we go from here? How do we transfer the newly demonstrated techniques to an increasing number of small farmers? Israel's Extension Service, set up in the 1960s by the Ministry of Agriculture, is still in great demand by the Israeli farmer. In spite of the technology and advanced scientific methods applied in Israeli agriculture, the Israeli farmer is anything but reticent in his request for the extension agent's visit.

And, if we succeed in invigorating the extension service, with whom we cooperate, in one of the above countries, where does the farmer get a loan to buy technology, improved seeds and fertilizers? Can the UNDP or USAID cooperate at this juncture? What about marketing at the domestic and export levels? Perhaps the resources put at the disposal of President Clinton's new initiative can assist here.

We tend to feel that education is inseparable from food security. Given the FAO forecast that 30% of Africans are expected to endure hunger and poverty until 2010, food security will certainly remain the number one priority of MASHAV programs.

However, another survey in Latin America concludes that if 20% of the school-going population is not attending high school, there is little chance for growth. Can Israel meet some of Africa's needs in the area of education? Which ones? How? The task ahead is truly difficult, and we look forward to the workshop discussions to broaden our perceptions on the subject and perhaps to define some operational goals.

Mr. Yigal Antebi
Director of the African Division I, Africa Department
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs

As one of the longest serving diplomatic officers on the African continent, I have learned to appreciate its peoples, family values, the human and geographical diversity and its potential for development, material and otherwise. The African Desk makes every effort to maintain and deepen Israel's relations with Africa which boasts, today, of 48 nations.

The main thrust is through our embassies and representatives. Three years ago, we established the Israel-Africa Chamber of Commerce which encourages Israeli businesspeople to visit and invest in Africa. Above all, it is clear that were it not for MASHAV activities, our diplomatic relations would have an altogether different hue.

Each time we tour the Continent, we experience the impact of MASHAV, whether it be the question about an expert who was on mission thirty years earlier, or the sight of green, cultivated furrows in the middle of a barren, rocky slope.

Many of the diplomatic exchanges center on practical issues such as water, seeds, and eye-clinics rather than, or in addition to, positions to be taken at the next UNESCO Assembly.

In conclusion, we are grateful for MASHAV's energizing and creative contributions to our political work. May today's deliberations bring even more important contributions to Israeli-African relations.

Professor Benjamin Neuberger
Chairman, Political Science Department
Open University of Israel
Professor of African Studies, Tel Aviv University

Africa Between Dictatorship and Democracy: A Political, Economic, and Social Overview

As an academic, I will allow myself to be provocative, an attitude which the Ambassador of Nigeria legitimized in his remarks this morning. In contrast to the concrete subjects which make up international cooperation, I shall address the abstract idea of democracy which, in the opinion of many, is intrinsically related to development.

First allow me to clarify some of the concepts related to democracy. It is important to differentiate between a democratic structure which is formal, limited, and shallow, despite the existence of a number of political parties, elections, a parliament with an opposition etc., and a liberal democracy in which government intervention is limited, civil liberties and human rights are secure, the letter of the law is observed and political life is characterized by tolerance, compromise, and non-violence.

Democratization is the process of change from an authoritarian regime to democratic government. One can identify the first stage, where elements of both systems appear, and the final stage, as in South Africa. The final stage, however, could be a return to authoritarianism, or develop into anarchy, as in Liberia.

In the modern history of Africa we can distinguish three waves of democratization.

1. The decolonialization in the decades of the 1940s and 1950s. This period was not solely a process of national liberation. It was accompanied by slogans calling for a democratic society. Some examples are 'one man, one vote', 'self-government now', 'no independence before majority rule', and 'equal pay for equal work'.
2. The second wave, at the end of the 1970s, was short: it included Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Senegal, and Zimbabwe.
3. The longest and most significant wave of democratization began in the 1990s.

The democratic wave of the 1990s has seen changes in government, as a result of elections in such countries as Benin, Zambia, Mali, Madagascar, twice in Nigeria, Burundi, Lesotho, South Africa, and Malawi. This has by no means been an easy feat. In other countries, multiple party elections took place, with no changes in government, as in Kenya, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Cameroon, Ethiopia, and Zimbabwe. Some of the African dictators were unseated, to no-one's regret, as, for example, Mobutu, whom the Ambassador mentioned this morning. The new liberalization also brought with it a degree of freedom of the press, unthinkable ten or twenty years ago. Julius Nyerere, who in the 1960s was the undisputed proponent of the system, says today, at eighty years of age, that the one-party system is 'not God's will'!

The causes of the democratization process were both internal and external. An important internal cause was the total failure, from the point of view of economic development, of authoritarian regimes, whether Marxist, military or civilian. All economic indicators worsened progressively the GDP, foreign investments, foreign debt, standard of living, etc. Structural adjustment programs of the World Bank brought more poverty and suffering. Other external causes were the worsening terms of trade. Internal causes were significant, however: another example mentioned by the Ambassador is the rising military costs of African countries, which account for a large share of the countries' budgets.

The momentous changes in Eastern Europe were also felt in Africa. As the president of Gabon said, 'The eastern winds are shaking the coconut trees.' We live, in effect, in a global village and the world's attention to that eastern part of the planet caused some coconut dictators to fall. It began when the Soviet Union applied some pressures to countries in its orbit of influence, such as Ethiopia, and then the World Bank Report of 1989 raised, for the first time, the connection that might exist between economic development and political institutions. The theme was raised again in the La Baule Conference in 1990, where the late Francois Miterrand formulated the slogan 'There is no development without democracy.'

Another internal cause unaffected by external happenings was the development of associations and groups of students, lawyers, and journalists. A new intellectual elite arose and gave form and content to the emerging civil society which was instrumental in promoting democratic ideas.

Naturally this democratic process suffered its downs as well as its ups. Elections were known to have been 'fixed'; there were threats of violence against the opposition; military coups replaced democratically elected officials, notably in Somalia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda , Burundi, and Nigeria.

Democratization is a very difficult process that must be seen from a historical perspective. The principal obstacles to democracy in Africa include the lack of a democratic tradition. I completely agree with the Ambassador's description of the behavior of the colonial powers. Up to one year before the departure of the Belgians from Zaire there were no political parties, no free workers' unions, no elections, and no intelligentsia only a tradition of brutal violence.

Another obstacle is the lack of foreign investment, and the resultant poverty. The whole of Africa receives, per year, as much private investment as Argentina or Thailand alone. Of this, most investments go to a few countries: 40% to Nigeria, 18% to Ghana, 9% to Angola, and the rest to forty-five countries.

Africa owes $200 million in foreign debt and is completely dependent on foreign aid. As Mr. Haim Divon mentioned, foreign powers once competed for Africa's favors. Now the continent is in danger of marginalization. In my opinion, without some element of 'interest', it is debatable whether Africa can depend on humanitarian motives.

The ethnic issue. Africa is an ethnic mosaic whose problem lies in the modernization gap that exists among the various groups. Across the ethnic scale there is a positive correlation between the level of education and degree of development. This results in the phenomenon whereby political struggles, often connected to economic issues, turn into ethnic struggles.

The weakness and vulnerability of governments and public institutions, of political parties and of the labor and professional associations form a particular obstacle, in view of the formidable tasks facing their leadership structures. They are asked to accomplish, in decades, what European countries took hundreds of years to do. Because of this, our expectations are high, but our disappointments are still greater.

We are in fact still searching for many answers, and I should like to conclude my remarks by mentioning some pertinent, yet unresolved questions.

• What is the relationship between development and democracy? Is one dependent on the other? Today's thinking is that development is dependent on democracy.
• Is cultural heterogeneity an obstacle to democracy? Some say that, on the contrary, pluralism is essential to democracy.
• Can external pressures hasten democratization, or is it solely an internal process? Or can both internal and external pressures contribute?
• Is peace, or absence of violence, a condition for democracy or vice-versa? We think of violence-ridden countries such as Mozambique, Sudan and Liberia.
• Can political structuralization (federal government) or electoral systems of one kind or another bring democracy?
• What is the influence of the traditional system on democracy? Was it positive in Botswana?
• Is the quality of leadership important? Although I raise the issue in question form, I am prepared to answer it. It is extremely important who the heads of government are. Not everything depends on socio-economic factors. Leaders have always had a determining role in history, and so, too, will African leaders determine the course of their countries.

NGOs as a Mechanism for Development in Africa: Emphasis on Women and Ethnic Groups

What is the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs)? How is this role viewed by governments and what are its ramifications?

Who are those organizations that supply services to the African population, services in the area of welfare assistance, social amenities, economic and political support, in authoritarian and democratic regimes?

These organizations can be small and local or large and national, they can be roof organizations or rural groups.

Some mobilize their members directly, others absorb members from existing groups and social networks. The criteria for belonging can be narrow, such as inhabitants of a village, women, members of a cooperative, or on the basis of a number of varied elements, such as women lawyers, women journalists, or lawyers for civil rights, etc.

All NGOs have common characteristics as well as differences. All NGOs are interested in development in the public sector, often in addition to specific goals. This is demonstrated through their involvement in a local project: building a school, a nursery, or a feeder road; or in a campaign for land reform, democratization, and so forth.

Common to all NGOs is, of course, some type of relationship with the formal government structure This ranges from close cooperation, to government registration, to violent conflict. The content of these relationships also varies from funding, partial financial support, moral support, or even outlawing the NGO.

Conversely, the presence and activities of NGOs do influence processes in the society where it is active, regardless of the enormous variations in the existing organizations and socio-political situations in which they interact.

The second issue I wish to raise is the way NGO activities are perceived at the political level.

At the moment when the NGO delivers needed services to its target population, it interacts with the people on different levels. The population and the NGO begin to form a "needy/provider" relationship. The NGO, itself, adapts its services to the expressed needs of the population. There are many examples from the area of assistance to rural women to be seen in the adjusted objectives that encompass all age/sex groups in the rural area.

The active NGO develops a maze of activities for a variety of clients who, by their reciprocal contacts, form a network of informal social ties based on concrete needs. Is this not the definition of civil society?

Some governments perceive NGOs as a potential threat to their positions of power. They see in them competitors in delivering services to the population, and many have imposed controls and constraints on NGO activity.

More often, the state differentiates among NGOs. Let us take the examples of a women's NGO and an ethnic based organization. Both NGOs might be involved in the same type of development activities, however, because of the characteristics of a large number of African countries, ethnic groups are viewed as far more dangerous than a women's NGO. Women's NGOs can deliver services to women, who are half the state's population and, even though they are competing with government and opening new issues for public debate, they are not seen as a threat to the state.

On the contrary, NGOs based on ethnic membership are seen by governments as having the potential to threaten the existence of the country within its present boundaries.

From the point of view of African governments, the important question is how can ethnic-based NGOs exist and promote development work without opening a Pandora's Box of ethnic rivalries? For the ethnic-based NGOs, the critical issues are to maintain their respective cultural activities and promote development, which contributes to the enhancement of civil society in general.

The African reality compels us to consider the broad and long-term political implications of this reality, in order to find the right partners for development.

Thank you.

Dr. Aryeh Oded
Former Israeli Ambassador to Kenya
Senior Lecturer, Department of African Studies
Hebrew University, Jerusalem

The Importance of Development Cooperation in Israeli Diplomacy in Africa

The impressions, conclusions and examples I am going to share with you are based on my personal experiences during different periods of Israel-Africa relations, extending from the '60s, now nicknamed 'the honeymoon period', to the '70s, when I was in charge of Israeli interests in Kenya, in the absence of diplomatic relations, and into the '80s and '90s, as Israeli Ambassador to Kenya and accredited to several other countries in the region.

Generally speaking, the excitement generated by MASHAV activities in the 60s can only be explained by the ideological, humanitarian and moral motivation of those involved. MASHAV programs received our total attention in the day-to-day activities at the embassies. However, as a diplomat who lived in Africa through years of tension , and especially through the severance of ties with Israel, I must acknowledge that MASHAV, though not a tool of Israel's political, economic, and information campaign, was indeed a lever in the achievement of the desired results. MASHAV programs were the only means through which we could have contact with high ranking officials such as the president and his ministers.

The following example will illustrate the point.

During the break in relations with Kenya, we were approached by the minister of social services to assist the National Youth Service (NYS), and we agreed to do so. However, we asked for a signed agreement detailing the conditions under which the Israeli experts would work. The minister for foreign affairs refused to sign such an agreement with a state with which there were no relations. Since the project of the NYS was important to the president, the bureau was moved to the president's office and the contract was duly signed. At the various ceremonies of the NYS, Israel was the only foreign state represented. This gave its representative opportunities to discuss issues with the president and his ministers, something which would have been impossible in other formal settings.

In 1991, after the elections in Zambia that brought the downfall of Kenneth Kaunda and the ascension to power of President Chiluba, I received a telephone call inviting me to Lusaka. I went, certain that it was a matter of starting a dialogue. After the first meeting, the foreign minister informed me that the next day President Chiluba intended to sign a document renewing diplomatic relations between Israel and Zambia. Would the Israelis be willing to return to guiding the very successful agricultural cooperatives, an activity which had been broken off in 1973?

The same desire to recommence MASHAV activities was behind the renewal of diplomatic ties with Tanzania, the Seychelles Islands, and other states across the continent.

Allow me some additional observations and conclusions on the subject the goals and strategies of international cooperation.

During all my years of service in Africa, although we spoke of the need for long-term planning of MASHAV activities, in reality, this was never achieved. In the countries where I was stationed, Israel was under constant pressure from Arab and Communist elements, so that MASHAV activities were usually planned and carried out only upon demand from local officials. This was easily accomplished when the request could be satisfied through participation in courses, or which involved bringing an Israeli consultant on a short-term mission to Africa.

One day, for example, I received a call from the minister of agriculture in Kenya, asking for an immediate meeting. (Until then we had done very little in Kenyan agriculture.) The following morning, the minister described the fall in the production of maize and asked whether Israel could help. Within a number of days an Israeli consultant arrived in Kenya, examined the situation throughout the country, and wrote a detailed report with recommendations. This gained enormous credibility for Israel in the eyes of the ministry and of the president.

The methodology applied to courses conducted in Israel by MASHAV is satisfactory, especially when the course contents are adjusted from time to time. However, in-country courses are especially useful, as these permit the embassy to develop contacts with a variety of people and institutions.

Also effective are the follow-ups, conducted all too sparingly, where Israeli instructors return for short-term refresher workshops with MASHAV alumni geared to promote professional knowledge and reinforce ties of friendship. In all my years in Africa, this type of activity took place only once with the Golda Meir Mount Carmel Training Center. The 'Shalom' alumni magazine has its role to play but doesn't substitute for face-to-face contact.

The reputation which Israel gained, both with Africans and with donor countries, has its roots in this development of human resources. One could even project into the future and see Israel as an international focal point for development of human resources, especially in the field of agriculture and arid zone development.

The idea of initiating an activity in an African country and then training a local counterpart to work with the Israeli expert (over a two- to four-year period) is a sound one. Unpredictable obstacles remain to be overcome, however, such as the abandonment of the position by the local expert for better employment opportunities. Perhaps a personal contract with the local expert might be a solution.

Furthermore, the critical issue is often not the professionalism of the long-term consultant but the quality of human relations which the expert is capable of developing with the local staff.

We have learned from the Israeli experience in Africa that, in countries where Israel had economic interests and where mutual economic interests existed, diplomatic relations were more stable and continued in spite of the severance of formal ties, for example, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and the Ivory Coast. This demonstrated the importance of economically profitable enterprises parallel to MASHAV's activities. An innovative agro-industrial project planned for Zambia by Mr. Yitzhak Abt and his team from CINADCO The Centre for International Agricultural Development and Cooperation, though not carried out, was a step in the right direction.

Another important point in relation to Israel's international cooperation is our stance vis-à-vis countries with large Moslem populations. Islamic and anti-Israel elements from Arab countries are still active today in Africa. MASHAV activities can be effective in neutralizing these elements and should be continued. An in-country course conducted in Mombassa, Kenya, by the Golda Meir Center brought us a great deal of support from the Moslem population, as most of the trainees were Moslem. So too did Professor Yagil's course on 'Camel Husbandry', which in fact opened channels to the Moslem leadership.

Although the above descriptions exemplify MASHAV's role as a lever in the enhancement of diplomatic relations between Israel and African countries, this role must not be exaggerated in view of the 'domino effect' triggered by the rupture of Israeli-African ties in 1972-73. We can all bear witness to the fact that an interest in Israel's international cooperation cannot substitute for mutual political and economic interests.

In conclusion, I should like to mention that since Israel's presence in Africa expands throughout thirteen diplomatic missions, it would be wise for MASHAV to plan accordingly. It is also recommended that MASHAV differentiate between projects and courses. Projects and long-term consultancies will be more effective and productive in countries that are more stable and can serve as successful models for implementation in other countries.

In-country courses and training in Israel should be offered to a broader range of countries. This should actually enhance Israel's potential to become, as mentioned above, an international center for the development of human resources.

MK Professor Naomi Chazan
Professor of Political Science
Hebrew University of Jerusalem

Workshop Reports A Summary, Analysis and Recommendations
To be followed by an open discussion.

I have listened intently to the conclusions of the working groups, and I must say that what I heard today was much more stimulating than the discussions we had at the first MASHAV forum ten years ago, when I was Head of the Truman Institute at the Hebrew University. I will try to summarize the presentations, as both an academic and a politician.

There has been no basic change in the concept of Israel's program of international cooperation from what I heard ten, twenty, even thirty years ago. The only conclusion to be drawn from this is that this concept is both suitable and appropriate.

Israel is committed to developing relations with countries in the Third World, first and foremost with the African states. Israel uses 'cooperation' to enhance these relations. In order to do this, Israel must give the best assistance possible to answer the needs of the countries. My intent is not to suggest a change in this concept but rather to test it in reference to less salient issues.

Assistance is extended not only by representatives of Israel's international cooperation program, but also by private Israeli interests working in Africa who are less concerned about the countries' development needs. How can you explain to outsiders that such private interests do not represent Israel? What kind of adjustments can be made between economic, political, and 'cooperation' interests?

The second issue concerns the African elements that are the official counterpart of MASHAV. Can international cooperation really provide a solution to Africa's problems? My answer is no, because most of the continent's economic problems are a direct result of its excruciating political problems. Eighty percent of the poverty which we are trying to alleviate has its roots in the mistaken policies of corrupt, if not inhuman, leadership. There exists a need to deal much more systematically with the political aspect of international cooperation in order to cope with the above issue.

As for elements of strategy, I should like to sharpen the focus on ideas already expressed, with which I am in full agreement. In the coming years our attention should be directed towards Africa, for it is the continent of the future. More and more countries will be investing in Africa, where our past development cooperation experience gives us a relative edge. Because of the problematic aspects described above, the integrative approach should be the keystone of our strategy, and of course professionalism must characterize our technical assistance.

With reference to priority areas of assistance, I suggest that we should continue training in fields we have traditionally covered, with the addition of 'public administration' and 'democracy'. These two subjects are critical to the changes that are expected in Africa and, like the more traditional areas of aid, stand the test of Israeli expertise and competence.

Although Israel is not alone in assisting African countries, it was one of the first to do so. Our own relatively recent development experience, and our extensive development cooperation experience in many countries, give us both credibility and exclusivity and should be our primary criteria when deciding whether or not to enter into a project agreement. Furthermore, preference should be given to projects that have the potential for the integration of various sectors, thus providing the basis for 'sustainability'.

In terms of those who should provide Israel's international cooperation, I must say that I could not detect any changes from what I heard 10 years ago. In addition to 'experts' or 'specialists' there is an urgent need to widen the field teams to include academics and economists. No serious work can be undertaken without their input. There is a need to involve Israeli NGOs and academic institutions selectively in Israel, in international cooperation institutes, and on the spot in Africa.

There should be partnerships with international NGOs, which by virtue of their size and influence can have political ramifications, in terms of the multiplier effect of Israeli assistance. The partnerships we are suggesting will not only enhance the quality of our development assistance but will provide additional material resources to cope with the costs of serious development projects.

Who should be the recipients of MASHAV programs? Broad generalizations on this point are not desirable; it depends very much on what sectors we are referring to. Three general directions have been mentioned however. MASHAV must undoubtedly work with the elites, with the bureaucrats who are in a position to take decisions today and tomorrow. Secondly, MASHAV programs must address women because they are the key to social development. Any program which targets them will immediately cause the curve to rise, because a large proportion of the poor in Africa, and in other countries including Israel, are women. Today we have fifty-one countries in Africa, but the way things are going we shall soon see fifty-five. What are our priorities in this respect? In my opinion, South Africa should be high on our priority list today, as should Nigeria, the most populous African country. But is the political criterion the only consideration? From the point of view of effectiveness and of Israel's reputation, a serious effort in Burundi can bring about favorable results. After all, other donors are active in South Africa today.

The issue to summarize last, but not least, is how the cooperation program should be conducted. When we confront the immense needs of Africa we begin to realize how little we can do with our available resources. We depend greatly on our partner donor countries and we haven't done enough to form a 'development cooperation lobby' in Israel. A serious enterprise beckons us: to find the means to heighten awareness and action on the part of the Knesset and ministers, so that a greater share of the national budget is allocated to development aid. Development assistance is not a party issue but a national one.

Another aspect is the structure of the organization, the division and delegation of responsibilities, the decision-making process and so forth. Part of the discontent expressed might lie in the efficiency of the machinery in Israel. Some of you raised the idea of a 'Strategy Forum', whose mandate would be to analyze the very factors we have been discussing, to define the broad goals of MASHAV and establish short- and medium-term objectives. Members of such a 'Forum' would be drawn from field specialists, academics and the business community. In addition to a 'Strategy Forum', it would be beneficial to find a way to obtain greater input from the political desks into determining policy-making by the International Cooperation Division. Here, both inter-ministry and intra-ministry consultations could improve the performance of MASHAV in Africa.

Monitoring and evaluation form the third element in the area of organization and management where we should like to have an input. What level of performance has the Planning and Evaluation Unit achieved? In order to assure continuity and innovative planning, it is essential to carry out objective surveys and research, and to be able to face their results and consequences.

There is a fourth recommendation that has not been proposed, so I will do it. This is the incorporation of a specialist to the MASHAV team, a man or woman whose task would be the continuous follow-up of political, economic and social development in Africa, providing real-time information as operational decisions are taken. Unfortunately neither the political desks nor the research department have the time to provide the type of information needed for the more efficient functioning of MASHAV.

This briefly summarizes your conclusions, expanded by some of my own ideas in reference to planning MASHAV activities what they should be, who should provide them, for whom they should be provided and how this should be done.

Summary of Open Discussion

The important 'watchdog' role played by the media was emphasized. The media was also cited as an educational tool, able to generate public awareness þ for example, the successful campaign launched to collect contributions from school children for their peers in Rwanda.

A distinction was made between emergency aid and integrated projects. Emergency aid uses large amounts of funds, creates public awareness, but of course does not construct foundations for further development. Integrated development projects, however, use available resources more slowly and aim to build a secure framework. A recurrently debated topic is whether the MASHAV should remain an integral part of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or should, for the sake of professionalism, be a separate bureau or authority. Both examples exist among donor countries. The latest trend is to reintegrate aid into the foreign affairs ministries as is done in The Netherlands and the U.S. The latter structure strengthens the raison d'être and the goal-setting aspects of international cooperation.

Mr. Benjamin Abileah
Head of Planning and Evaluation Unit, MASHAV

Mr. Abileah invited everyone to forward their thoughts to the Unit as "the dialogue engaged during this consultation must be continued and sustained."

As of this year, one quarter of MASHAV's activities are directed towards Africa. The main subject areas are food security and betterment of rural life, both of which are felt to be Africa's most pressing concerns. There is general agreement on the need to develop human resources to deal with the tasks ahead, and MASHAV's training institutes are doing this in a highly professional manner. Even the demonstration farm projects and consultancy missions are tools for developing human resources.

MASHAV depends on resources from the public sector, but every effort is made to increase these resources by attracting private sector investment. Unfortunately, Africa has a public relations problem. Businesspeople are wary about investing in the continent. The research projects conducted jointly with Israeli and African universities are those funded by The Netherlands-Israel Research Project (NIRP).

I actually have more questions than answers:

Must we, as a public institution, finance feasibility studies as a form of encouragement to the private sector?

How do we deal with countries having a poor record on human rights and poor environmental conservation? Should these countries be targeted in the hope of eventually modifying their stands?

How should we balance training in Israel and in-country training? A new challenge presents itself regional courses. This is possible because of the similarity in conditions among neighboring countries, and desirable because of the potential for beneficial exchange among the participants. One obstacle though is travel costs.

Regarding follow-up, the more innovative the subject, the more requests there are for follow-up programs. What part of the available resources should be allocated to this? Until now, evaluations have been conducted on a general level. Perhaps they should be carried out according to subject matter? Could we overcome the insecurity linked to the application of new knowledge by bringing teams, instead of individuals, to Israel?

We intend to continue with the monthly 'Think-Tank Forum' initiated by our colleague, the late Shimon Amir. We also intend to create a data bank of countries cooperating with MASHAV, which will contain subject areas and comments on the receptivity and effectiveness of the transfer of knowledge. This of course demands an increased effort from MASHAV, from the diplomatic representatives abroad, and from the training institutes.

In my opinion, and in conclusion, today's seminar was extremely useful. It helped us to identify the areas where we need further and more detailed examination, mainly in policy-making and methodology.

Appendix

Working Group on Agriculture

The work group was attended by twenty-eight participants possessing experience and know-how related to agricultural cooperation programs in Africa. The group was chaired by Mr. Yitzhak Abt, former director of CINADCO, the Center for International Agricultural Cooperation.

The participants were reminded that, during the last few decades, MASHAV developed programs on the African continent mainly within three agricultural situations: subsistence, improved traditional, and diversified agriculture. A fourth situation relating to specialized, more sophisticated agriculture was introduced only in a few countries.

Improved agriculture, with traditional crops and livestock branches, has been the dominant agricultural activity in Africa. Subsistence agriculture is still dominant in most countries in Africa, although there are enclaves of specialized agriculture, particularly in commodities such as coffee, tea, rubber, floriculture, and sub-tropical fruits.

The main question on the agenda is what MASHAV can and should do to encourage the transition from subsistence agriculture to diversified and specialized agriculture, without endangering the need to support production programs for food security. In this equation, consideration must be given to improving basic grains and tubers to needy populations.

Another part of the equation is what measures are to be taken to provide an ever-growing urban population with food needs, bearing in mind that populations reaching urban centers from rural areas tend to diversify their demand for food commodities.

The discussion should therefore dwell on strategies needed to produce market driven commodities and provide the necessary support systems for agricultural production.

• Two problems encountered focus on the need to stimulate the process towards diversified agriculture and the need to introduce new crops, particularly in arid zones with only a modest capital input. Dates, other fruit trees, and nuts could contribute to the sub-Sahara region in enhancing food security. Other new crops, including trees for fuel purposes, should and could be introduced by their transfer from different eco-systems to targeted regions, including desert margin areas.

  In this respect, there are criteria for developing programs supported by UNESCO, MASHAV, and other international agencies with IPALAC (Introduction of Plants for Arid Land Crop Production). Recent initiatives have been taken to develop the programs in West Africa (Niger,, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali). These introductions have to be made simultaneously, with new approaches toward water harvesting, currently being tested in Israel and in that region.

• The qualitative improvement of traditional foods, such as yams and cassava, must be strongly endorsed.

• A main constraint to project implementation is the issue of marketing and the dependency of producers on the middle-man, who has his specific access to markets without sharing sales benefits with producers.

• Emphasis must be placed on the need to encounter novel methods to market produce and reduce the mark-up of the middle-man

• All beginnings should be modest and manageable. They should be designed from the outset to be profitable and should be further developed in phased diverse activities. For example, the poultry project developed by MASHAV in Swaziland which later broadened to aquaculture and vegetables. Success may be achieved by developing out-grower programs using a central farm facility as a focus for the introduction of new technologies. Out-growers should, and could, be organized within cooperation organizations linked to the core farm for those aspects related to the bulk purchase of inputs, bulk transport and marketing. This model is a form of satellite farming, and was designed to take up the slack encountered in recent years in the provision for adequate extension and support services.

• An additional question of how to involve beneficiary populations more intensely in MASHAV projects as posed. Mention was made of contemporary experiences for undertaking participatory rural need assessment.

• This is done best by demonstrating innovations on farm holdings and teaching farm communities to produce and sell surplus products by adequate post-harvest care and, in some cases, by pre-processing. It was suggested that CINADCO train suitable professional and academic manpower in Israel to continue an adequate professional and extension delivery system to farmers for Israel's international programs in the future.

• Know-how alone is not enough. Professionals need adequate training to transfer their know-how to others. This means that potential Israeli experts for service in Africa should have the benefit of in-service training to adapt and transfer their knowledge effectively.

• MASHAV should encourage programs for cooperation with non-governmental organizations, institute programs and initiatives that are market oriented, and thus alleviate the exodus of active farmers from rural to urban areas.

• A participatory assessment approach, whereby communities and individuals actively participate in the definition or rural and agricultural problems affecting their lives should be endorsed. By doing this, the chances for better implementation and sustainability can be enhanced. This participatory approach is also relevant in decision making related to applied research.

• There is doubt that agro-technological development in Israel could and should be introduced within existing farm systems, citing the example water harvesting (highlighting the disadvantages of building large water dams that lose water due to high evaporation rates). New water harvest methods, based on developing smaller water harvesting basins, linked with innovative mulching practices, get a better penetration of water into soils in semi-arid and arid regions. In this way, market gardens have been developed in a MASHAV/UNESCO sponsored program in Mali and Burkina Faso, subsequently raising the productivity of semi-arid lands. This could be relevant to many semi-arid and desert margin areas, and relates more to the problems of small farmers and peasant holdings than to larger extended farm enterprises.

• Israel's activities in trilateral cooperation in agricultural research have yielded some outstanding results and much more effort should be made to continue and enhance such cooperation. MASHAV should set up a work group to follow up research results for practical implementation and dissemination.

• MASHAV should cultivate and expand more programs of cooperation with French-speaking countries in Africa, bearing in mind that many of the countries in West Africa, as well as Haiti, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, are categorized as least developed countries (LDCs). The experience of the last few years indicate that Israel has much to offer those countries, particularly in the fields of irrigation, field crops, small livestock husbandry, beekeeping, grain storage, etc. These countries are now entering a new phase of market economy, requiring considerable know-how and technology.

• Problems of rural youth who have not had the opportunities of adequate schooling must be addressed. Governments budget financial resources to develop youth farms for purposes of training. This point is very important, and priority should be given to transfer new tested technologies to a new generation of farmers. One could be to choose a number of rural schools to develop an elite group of youngsters to employ new technologies. This could be done with a number of selected schools and colleges in different sub-regions of Africa. The problem is not only to teach new technologies but also to instill a more holistic approach to rural development and the phased modernization of agriculture.

• Development depends on know-how, organization and capital. This could be done by developing satellite farming systems. It would seem that the integrative approach involving know-how and management, linking applied and adaptive research, is a means by which farms could be incorporated into a more market-oriented agriculture.

• Consensus was reached concerning Israel's contribution to the dilemma of agriculture and rural development in Africa. Agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions, desertification, soil and water conservation, pre-processing, and processing of farm raw materials to increase added value for the myriad of small producers, improvement of storage, transport, and marketing of commodities are preferred areas of concentration.

• A number of participants raised the question of effectiveness in the transfer of technology and maintained that extension delivery systems should be paid for even if on a very symbolic basis. Within the satellite farm system, this was seen to be feasible.

It was unanimously decided to continue this important dialogue. Mr. Abt was asked to organize further sessions to discuss professional and organizational aspects that could further contribute to the introduction of relevant technologies to targeted African rural communities.

Working Group on Medicine and Public Health

The panel discussed different aspects of medical assistance programs, as reflected by MASHAV's experts working in Africa since their experiences are invaluable for formulating general and specific policies.

Notwithstanding limited resources available for cooperation programs in the field of medicine in Africa, consensus was reached regarding a set of realistic priorities for future activities on a sub-regional and country basis.

These priorities should, as far as possible, juxtapose with ongoing multilateral and NGO activities. Israel could contribute specific elements to medical programs being carried out by other donor countries and organizations, Emphasis would be placed on formal medical training programs and paramedical in service training. This implies international course training in Israel, as well as in-country training programs.

On the other hand, the problem of exaggerated expectations beyond the resource possibilities of MASHAV is often encountered. Most recipient countries expect donations of equipment and basic infrastructure which is beyond the financial capability of MASHAV.

It was agreed that medical cooperation in Africa should be planned on a long-term modular basis, incorporating sporadic ad-hoc programs.

The panel supported the idea of integrated, preventive and primary health care as an additional element in the very localities and communities where MASHAV is active in agricultural development projects.

Finally, MASHAV's medical cooperation programs should include diagnostic medicine, primary health care and nutrition, and intermediate first-stage clinic care and hospitalization. Another aspect discussed was the possibility of entering into joint medical ventures involving the public and private sectors in Israel and recipient countries.

There was consensus that humanitarian medical aid, as undertaken in the past, should continue, but should lead to more sustainable medical programs, bearing in mind the rich human resources available in Israel for such activities.

The main agreed to recommendation is related to the need to expand the medical aid cooperation in Africa according to the needs and priorities of the targeted states and according to three principles:

1. To carry out a series of activities based on the acceptable parameters of MASHAV that will lead to considerable influence on the specific medical field.

2. To combine the establishment of infrastructure elements in the activities concerning medical aid with ways of creating a regular basis for a continuous policy that will use the acceptable MASHAV parameters.

To increase cooperation with the funding sources (organizations, institutions and business sector) so that we can run our complex activities that go beyond MASHAV's parameters.

Working Group on Education

• All participants agreed upon the need to increase Israel's role in technical cooperation in the area of education, in particular, in the following fields: basic education, education for women, and vocational education within the framework of a formal educational system, teachers' training institutions, and advanced study programs for teachers within the framework of their work.

• Focus of activity should be placed on "influential" populations, such as decision-makers on various levels, teachers, directors, and heads of local and regional authorities.

• Effort towards establishing integrative and comprehensive regional training and learning centers offering a variety of services to the local population should be considered. This will have a maximum influence on education processes and the standards of professionalism in the region.

• Utilization of the relative advantage Israel has in areas relating to educational "hi-tech" is an important factor in development cooperation. Programs should take into consideration the use of cost-effective and efficient educational technologies; utilizing new and modern technologies (computers, Internet); and using methods of "distance learning" in order to respond to the needs of accessibility to education, and ties between educational institutions, and expanding community education programs.

• It was suggested to integrate MASHAV's programming with international organizations, such as UNESCO and local organizations in various African countries.

Emphasis was placed on working with the private sector, in the area of educational software and hardware.

Working Group on Economic Development

We can identify a few central themes which found expression in the remarks of a number of participants.

Emphasis was placed on the fact that in the economic, as in so many other spheres, the present day marginalization of Africa stands in contrast to its potential. Africa is rich in virtually all of the natural resources, and their potential utilization far exceeds present day levels. Despite chronic poverty and frequent experience of both natural and man-made disasters such as drought and rapid desertification, Africa is also rich in the potential for enhanced agricultural development, Furthermore, although parts of Africa are still plagued by civil war, disease, corrupt government, and external exploitation, great progress has been made in terms of conflict resolution, democratization, and the introduction of effective and forward-looking economic policies.

In a word, despite grave difficulties clearly apparent, the group was also aware of a great potential for the future. This potential, coupled with the long history of MASHAV activity in Africa, served as the basis for the group's unanimous consensus in favor of a further maintenance and even expansion of the commitment to Africa. Indeed, if the end of the cold war had reduced the intensity of some countries' interest in Africa, while others were reluctant to continue to struggle with the sometimes daunting problems which Africa poses, the group felt that Israel should continue to play an active role in the promotion of Africa's economic development. Within that context, agriculture remains a central element. But it was emphasized that other areas of concern, such as regional and community development and health, education, and human resource development, in general, are all directly relevant and indeed basic constituents of rural development. Here, as elsewhere, the concept of an integrative approach found strong support among group members.

In considering the parameters of future MASHAV activity in Africa, the group noted a number of points. These included:

• The growing significance of small and medium scale economic institutions in industry, services and other areas.

• The enhances importance of non-governmental groupings for the development process, and the need to work with them in a variety of contexts.

• The need to make economic development an integral element in the process of conflict resolution.

• Emphasis was also placed on the need to develop an integrative approach which would promote effective linkages between governmental initiatives and the world of the NGOs.

• Turning to more specifically MASHAV-focused matters, the group emphasized the significance of follow-up programs, whose relative scarcity belies the impressive numbers of MASHAV graduates and past programs in Africa. It was also felt that MASHAV should utilize its many components and institutions in a more coordinated fashion in it activities within the countries of Africa. This links up with a suggestion for the initiation of integrative courses and training programs, to which two or even more MASHAV institutions might contribute. While recognizing the need to maintain contact with the entire continent, it was felt that MASHAV should identify strategically significant countries for special programmatic emphasis.

• An issue which provoked much discussion was the linkage of MASHAV activity to Israel's economic and political concerns. The group recognized the centrality of development cooperation per se, but also emphasized the contributions direct and indirect which this activity can and does make to these interests.

• Emphasis was placed on the need to set up a small group which would concern itself with an ongoing process of strategic and tactical thinking regarding Africa and regarding MASHAV's continuing activity on the continent.

The number of participants in the group was comparatively small, but the urgency of the theme for development led the group to decide not to disband.

The importance of NGOs is rooted in the fact that they

1. provide a channel for the expression of people's needs and aspirations to government bodies, and
2. serve as transmitters of knowledge and resources to needy groups in society.

The role of NGOs gains in significance, particularly at a time when government departments and agencies face increasing difficulties, budgetary and otherwise, in fulfilling their commitments to the citizens of their countries.

The NGO framework is convenient, also, for women who advocate for equal rights and recognition for their multiple roles as providers, caretakers, educators, and managers in the family and community, while facing growing economic difficulties. Many investigations have shown that as many as 50% of Africans live below the poverty line.

Therefore, when planning for development, for improved production and consumption in Africa today, it is imperative to recognize and support the central role of women (alongside that of men) in satisfying the family's needs and to recognize the role of NGOs as constructive mediators and facilitators between the establishment and grass-roots.

The adherence of African states (and others, of course) to the resolutions and action plans of the UN world conferences on Population and Development (Cairo), Social Summit (Copenhagen) and Women (Beijing) has resulted in new development policies and attitudes on the part of donors as well as those receiving assistance. For example:

1. The government of Cameroon recently signed an agreement with the World Bank, committing itself to a credit and loan project intended for NGOs. The same with Burkina Faso and the Ivory Coast.
2. In Congo-Brazzaville (pre-Nguesso), a joint UNDP-Ministry for Integration of Women in Development project provided funds for a Women's Bank that gave small loans to women entrepreneurs.
3. The proportions of men and women and government/non-government affiliation have become additional criteria for judging development activities, as in the selection of participants for training courses.
4. Another example was a tripartite Lesotho-Sweden-Israel project in favor of women. The main actors were the Lesotho National Council of Women-Vocational Institute, the Swedish Women's Social Democratic Clubs, and the MASHAV-Mt. Carmel Training Center. The three-year project aimed at training weaving teachers in Israel, on the spot in Lesotho, and opening a new department at the Vocational Institute with newly purchased weaving equipment.

The members of the working group all agreed that Israel could offer a variety of study examples of NGO activities and their development role.

Israel Development Cooperation with Other States How to continue?

Strive for closer communications and coordination among MASHAV, the training centers, the Israeli embassies, and other development agencies working in Africa.

MASHAV Training Centers

Working relations between MASHAV and the individual training centers are more than satisfactory. On the other hand, there is insufficient cooperation among the training centers. On the contrary, even competition is seen in the proliferation of courses on the same theme offered by different centers.

Israeli Embassies - Training Centers

On the whole, the administration of participant applications and dispatching of trainees to training courses is satisfactory. One serious shortcoming, however, is the lack of information about the NGOs which submit the names of candidates for courses their goals, activities, memberships, sphere of influence, etc.

Another drawback is the lack of follow-up information of returning trainees. The MASHAV representative in the embassy should be encouraged to seek out local NGOs with whom MASHAV could develop on-going cooperation and achieve a more significant impact in terms of "capacity building" in cooperating African countries.

MASHAV - Embassies

The present situation, with an embassy responsible for four to five countries, renders almost impossible the fulfillment of requirements for quality performance of Israeli cooperation. Consequently, it is recommended that priorities be established for areas of cooperation to be offered to each country. A selection should be made, too, in terms of training formats, such as training in Israel, on-the-spot courses, and long-term projects. Such a selection would permit more resources for follow-up activities and long-term planning in chosen subject areas.

The embassies should be asked to develop an informative directory of NGOs and to assess the influence and impact of each one on the country's development.

MASHAV policy on gender representation in all training activities should be clearly sated and an effort made all along the chain to change the status quo.

MASHAV - Donor Community

MASHAV has made serious efforts to sign cooperation agreements with other donors and is to be congratulated for this. This trend should be reinforced and broadened to include the informal convening of donors in individual countries in order to achieve more efficient use of donor resources and increase the impact of Israel's modest share in the countries where MASHAV is active.

In conclusion, the group, while underlining the importance of women and NGOs in development thinking, focused as well on suggestions for improving the performance of MASHAV in general.

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